Document(s) 6 de 11

Introduction

The International Development Research Centre (IDRC), in collaboration with theAfrican Technology Policy Studies (ATPS) network, intends to initiate a youth volunteer program: the Youth Leadership Program for Information and CommunicationTechnologies and Community Development in Africa (ALPID). The objective ofALPID is to establish community-based information resources to support decision-making in community-based efforts for self-advancement and general development.For ALPID to achieve its objective and implement the program successfully, it mustidentify youth with special skills and the stakeholders with whom the youth willcollaborate. This chapter identifies some of these skills and stakeholders in each ofthe program’s three priority areas: health, production-based small and medium-sizedenterprises (SMEs), and land use and environmental management.

This chapter is based on a review of secondary materials, discussions with afew people, and the consultant’s long experience in community development. Thereview looks at issues related to the availability of skilled youth to participate inALPID and the common social structures for disseminating information in the targetcommunities; offers dissemination strategies; describes the various stakeholders andpotential partners and their characteristics; and recommends coordination modalitiesfor ALPID.

Availability of skilled youth for ALPID

Since independence Kenyan government policy has been to provide access to education, especially basic education, for all Kenyans. In the past, the governmentinvested a substantial part of its recurrent budget in education. A combination ofefforts by government, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), private schools, andindividual families has given access to education to a large number of children.Kenyan society puts a high premium on educational attainment as a means to a betterfuture and therefore makes sacrifices to ensure Kenyan children get the highest levelof education.

In the 1980s, the government introduced the 8–4–4 system of education andchanged the curriculum to replace the 7–6–3 system.¹ The 1979–83 developmentplan, whose theme was poverty alleviation, said that the purpose of changing theschool curriculum was to equip graduates in rural areas with technical and vocationalskills to work in agriculture, nonfarm industries, and services. At that time, the jobmarket also had a demand for technical and vocational skills (GOK 1979).

The government also increased the number of public universities and accredited a number of private ones. Kenya now has five public universities: Nairobi, Moi,Kenyatta, Egerton, and the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture andTechnology. The private universities are Baraton, Daystar, the Catholic University,the United States International University in Africa, and the Methodist University.As a result, a large number of young Kenyans are obtaining college degrees eachyear. For example, between 1990 and 1994, the five national universities had anaverage enrollment of 40 116 students in their undergraduate, postgraduate, anddiploma courses (CBS 1995). Kenya has, therefore, a good number of young peoplewith degrees who are unemployed. The official figures from the Kenyan governmentshow that 500 000 people enter the job market annually, in a country with anunemployment rate of 20%. The decline in employment in the public sector hasaffected university graduates, who would traditionally have been absorbed into thesector’s various ministries and parastatal bodies. Graduates now have to compete forscarce jobs in the private sector or join the informal sector.

Given this state of affairs, it will be possible to recruit 20–25 year old youthwith college degrees in the three ALPID focus areas. To allow for easy access andselection, the program could recruit the youth just before their graduation or throughadvertisements. The program could also consult some of its stakeholders andpotential partners (described later in this chapter) for their advice, given theirexperience in development work, though not necessarily in information andcommunication technologies (ICTs).

Kenyan universities offer degrees relevant to the three focus areas. Youthwith degrees in the following disciplines are therefore available in Kenya: businessadministration, health sciences, commerce, economics, environmental sciences, computer science, and sociology. Several commercial colleges offer computer courses inword-processing, database, spreadsheet, and statistical packages. The more reputableof the commercial colleges are Strathmore, the School of Professional Studies, andthe Institute of Advanced Technology. Some of these colleges give training in e-mailand Internet use. Because of the high rate of unemployment among graduates, someyouth from financially better off families attend these commercial colleges to acquireadditional skills to get an advantage over others in the competition for jobs.Therefore, these colleges are also potential recruitment sources.

The recruited youth will need training in community development work, evenif they hold degrees in the sectors of the ALPID focus. This is because, as will beseen later, some of the key stakeholders in the health sector are people who live andwork in large plantations and farming estates, which are “closed communities”; theseareas are “closed” in a real sense, as they are privately owned. Therefore, very littleis known about their health and other needs or about how ICTs can be of use to them.

The community development training that ALPID’s volunteers will requireafter recruitment is described in the following section.

Requisite technical and social skills

In addition to having degrees in their respective disciplines, the youth volunteersshould also have skills in community development so that they can work with closedcommunities, as some of the health data they will be collecting is of a private nature.The youth should therefore be equipped with skills to enable them to approach thesecommunities and with the technical know-how to collect and analyze the relevantdata. They should also be able to fully understand the communities’ cultural andtraditional practices so that they can appropriately package and disseminate therelevant information. Consequently, they will need to have the following communitydevelopment skills.

Technical skills

The youth volunteers will need research skills to collect data and compile profiles ofthe communities they will be working with. Community development NGOs andworkers currently use rapid rural appraisal (RRA) and participatory rural appraisal(PRA) as research methods. RRA allows the researcher to rapidly get informationabout a small section of the population, such as a closed community. Researcherscommonly use PRA when they expect to do more research and testing.

In PRA, the fundamental belief is that interventions must be designed on thebasis of information generated by the people the interventions are intended to benefit.Chambers (1992) described PRA as a method of learning about rural life andconditions from, by, and with rural people. PRA can be used to identify marginalizedor poor communities, services and opportunities within communities, seasonalchanges, and the complexities behind people’s preferences. Using this method, theyouth volunteers will be able to collect information on the prevalence of diseases,production activities of SMEs, etc.

To successfully conduct PRA, the youth volunteers should also respectpeople’s knowledge, values, and attitudes. While conducting PRA the volunteers willhave an opportunity to develop a good rapport with the people in the communities.Youth volunteers will have to have the skills to develop this rapport.

Social skills

Social skills are those the researcher or communicator uses to interact with peopleor to achieve a desired goal. Some of the skills needed to achieve the desired goal arethe following:

To explain concepts or ideas clearly;
To listen well and probe to get hidden meanings in communication;
To observe, understand, and analyze what is going on around oneself;
To exhibit leadership in deciding on and implementing actions;
To mobilize and motivate others to act; and
To understand and interpret nonverbal communication.

Knowledge of group dynamics will enhance the ability of the volunteers tointeract with diverse people in the communities. Generally, in a group, there arepeople with different characters. The volunteers should know how the positive andnegative characters complement each other and when to use different characters toadvantage. The volunteers should also know about behavioural patterns and howsuch behavioural patterns can affect the program. They should know how thesebehaviours can be made to complement rather than negate each other.

The youth volunteers should demonstrate leadership skills, such as respect,sensitivity to people’s temperaments, and tolerance. Other leadership qualities are bean ability to listen, observe, and show respect for members of the group; honesty; anda willingness to make sacrifices for the good of the group.

By applying these skills, in combination with knowledge of the ALPID focusareas, the youth volunteers could design and package community-based informationsystems that will help the communities to identify resources within their owncommunity and to use these resources to enhance their own productivity and well-being. Most Kenyan communities have a very high regard for education. They willtherefore likely hold the volunteers in high esteem.

Social structures

Most societies have structures to govern their social, productive, and religious lives.These structures aim at attaining socially meaningful goals for the members ofsociety. The role an individual plays and the rewards reaped from playing this roleare based on age, gender, power, influence, and ability. The role determines the waythe individual is perceived by others in the community.

Some social structures have flexible rules governing membership, whereasothers have more elaborate rules. For example, the Borana of Western Province,Kenya, have an indigenous social organization based on the principles of Peace ofthe Borana (known as Nagaya Borana) and the quality of being a Borana (known asBonantiti). Their political organization is known as gada, a generation-based systemin which one generation is assigned to maintain the Peace of the Borana. This systemhas rules and rituals that have been kept for centuries. The Borana also have a systemof territorial organization: families are grouped into neighbourhoods, known assolala; neighbourhoods, into villages, called ollaa; villages, into ardas; ardas, intomedda; and meddas, into rela. These territorial divisions serve as the communities’resource management units. Other less elaborate but common structures in Kenyainclude the following:

Heads of extended families — The more cohesive extended families selecta member to be their leader. People do not make important decisionsregarding the family until they consult this leader, usually a man. He givesadvice and resolves disputes among family members. Wealth, age, andwisdom can determine leadership in the extended family.
The clan — A clan is a grouping of related extended-family members.Clan leaders, especially in Coast Province, can be very powerful. Forexample, they can decide how to divide the clan’s land. Governmentworkers, NGOs, and churches recognize the clan leaders as the entrypoints into clan-based communities.
Welfare societies — Welfare societies function as support networks duringemergencies. They give material and financial support when a member isbereaved; and organize and participate in cultural events, such asweddings, circumcision ceremonies, etc. Welfare associations arecommon in urban centres among ethnic groups from the rural areas. Someof the urban-based welfare associations are well structured, with electedofficials. Besides offering support during times of need, some welfaresocieties invest in property, stocks, bonds, and other money-earningactivities.
Community-based organizations — Community-based organizations(CBOs) are groups of people who come together to pool their resourcesto meet a common need or goal. In areas where they are well organizedand cohesive, they more or less provide the community with most of itsbasic services. Kenya has an estimated 30000 CBOs.
Religious groups (religious societies) — Religious groups function aswelfare societies for believers. Some leaders of religious groups have a lotof power over their members, dictating social associations, modes ofdress, etc.
Youth groups — Youth groups can be formal or informal. Formal youthgroups are the Boy Scouts, Girl Guides, Young Farmers Clubs, Wild LifeClubs, soccer clubs, and boxing clubs. Theatre, singing, counselling, andpeer-education groups are some common informal groups.
Merry-go-rounds — Merry-go-rounds are women-only social groups.They collect a determined amount of money, either weekly or monthly,from each group member. This money is either used to buy householdutensils for members or given to a member on rotation to use as shepleases. Merry-go-rounds are usually held in members’ homes or inchurches.
Nyama Choma clubs — Nyama Choma clubs are groups of people withcommon interests or people who work together and meet once a month toeat meat.

Dissemination of information

In Kenya, information is disseminated in a variety of ways, both formal and informal,and the following are some examples.

Formal information disseminators

Barazas are public meetings called by district officers or area chiefs to pass oninformation about government policies or decrees, discuss issues of public law andorder, and ask the public for harambee money for one project or another (harambeeare self-help initiatives in which people raise funds among themselves for a givencause). Barazas are also forums for professionals, in which, for example,

Agricultural extension workers discuss the available extension services,such as improved farming methods;
Community development assistants give people advice to improve theirwelfare, such as forming a women’s group to start income-generatingactivities;
NGO program officers inform the public of the types of project they haveor would like to support in a given area; and
Health workers usually offer information on nutrition, child care, birthplanning, child health, and nutritional education and demonstrate methodsfor cooking the locally available food, detecting acute respiratory infectionand malaria in the early stages, and preparing oral rehydration solutions.

This last point brings up a serious issue. “Often, health education messages are eitherinappropriate or accuse women of ‘ignorance’ and ‘neglect’” (Eade and Williams1995). This undermines women’s positions and disempowers them, thus reducingtheir ability to learn. It is important to recognize the social and economic constraintsthat most women face and to support their efforts to deal with ill health in theircommunities.

Informal information disseminators

Messages are informally relayed through the kanga or lesso, pieces of cloth used bywomen on the Kenyan coast. Proverbs are written on the border of the cloth. Theproverbs can be either negative or positive; however, they pass on messages. Peopleand organizations also distribute T-shirts that display certain messages.

Other informal disseminators of information are the mass media. Variousorganizations and the government often use the radio, television, and newspapers towidely disseminate information on health, government decrees, governmentpropaganda, tips on motoring or gardening, etc. The Kenya Broadcasting Corporationhas a weekly program, You and Your Health, which aims to make people aware ofhow to improve their health. Occasionally, the daily papers publish feature articleson SMEs or environmental issues.

Word of mouth is another way of passing on information. Community theatrehas also been shown to be an effective way to communicate health information torural communities. Comedies in the local language, containing messages of publicconcern, are very popular.

The youth volunteers should build on systems of informal communicationalready available in the communities. Then, with the members of the community andother professionals, they can develop other appropriate ways to disseminateinformation.

Appropriate dissemination strategies

This section identifies appropriate dissemination strategies for ALPID in each itsfocus areas.

Health

Most cultures have their own systems to explain the origin of illness. Whereasconventional science may prove that the causes of such illnesses are bacterial or viralinfections, the local people may see the origin of these illnesses in social behaviouror witchcraft. It is important for ALPID to research and document the ways peopleuse their traditional or informal health care, so that health interventions complementthe original practices (at least the good ones).

If a belief in witchcraft is identified as the community’s problem, the programstaff should find a way to address it. One way would be for staff, with the assistanceof the local leaders and the health workers in the area, to compose songs and dramasfor community gatherings, such as a chief’s baraza. One could also record orvideotape these songs and dramas for use in the future. Small groups of youth,women, and men can then discuss what they have seen and heard. The Widows andOrphans Welfare Society of Kenya has used this approach in its programs in Kisumu,Nyanza Province, where people believed that HIV and AIDS were related towitchcraft.

In addition, a variety of people in the health profession, such as doctors,nurses, nutritionists, and community-based health workers, disseminate health information. However, doctors, mostly those operating private practices, concentratemainly on curative measures; thus, people are cured but then go back to them forother ailments. The efforts of nurses and community-based health workers areconstrained by lack of equipment for demonstrations and by lack of transportation,which is either unavailable or too costly. An example of a failure to emphasizepreventive medicine occurred in the multisectoral Rural Development Programmeof the Church of Uganda in Busoga, whose staff in the medical sector failed toinclude health education or other aspects of preventive medicine in the AIDSactivities of their village-level health post. Similarly, the sector did little to createpublic awareness of HIV or AIDS, although these had been recognized as a nationalconcern.

The mass media play a significant role in the dissemination of healthinformation. People, especially those who have no radio or television, gather incentral places (such as community centres) to listen and watch. The literate buypapers to read for themselves and pass the information on to others. However, mostpeople have no access to radio or television, and some are illiterate and thereforecannot make use of newspapers. Using ICTs to collect and disseminate healthinformation will be a better method to reach these people.

Small and medium-sized enterprises

Newspapers, NGOs that carry out SME programs, and Jua Kali Associations haveall greatly assisted the SME sector in Kenya. However, some SME operators lackinformation on markets for their products. Some do not know how to use naturalmaterials in their production processes, perhaps because they have ignored thetraditional methods of skills acquisition. The Cree of Western Bay in northernOntario, for example, learn how to tan hides, set fishnets, and make moccasinsthrough apprenticeships and by watching their fathers and grandfathers. Similarly,in Kenya, people once made tools such as jembes (hoes or forks) and pangas(machetes), but these skills have almost disappeared. Had these skills been retained,people in rural areas would have access to the tools they need. The Turkana of Kenyaare known to be self-sufficient in the tools they need for daily life: they make knivesfor various purposes, cooking utensils, seats, etc. Collecting, storing, and disseminating indigenous knowledge with ICTs will help to preserve these types of skills.

Land use and environmental management

Governments and NGOs promote the value of conserving the environment. Lesothohas a reputation of having an exceptionally eroded landscape, and many studiesattribute the problem to the Basotho’s “bad and primitive” land management. Thegovernment, through the state radio, ridiculed this old practice without asking theBasotho why they still held onto it. ALPID’s efforts to gather and preserveindigenous knowledge will help to explain practices such as this.

Adult-learning methods required in a youth-to-adult transfer of knowledge

To effectively transfer knowledge to adults, the youth volunteers will have to beacquainted with various methods of adult learning, such as the following:

Focusing on existing problems, rather than on abstract concepts; stressing “need to know” over “nice to know”; and introducing problem-solving-oriented learning — The youth volunteers should provide skillsand knowledge to use immediately to resolve real-world problemsappearing on a day-to-day basis, and they should give the learners exercises to allow them to practice and apply new knowledge and skills in theeducational setting before having to use them on the job. Tutorials shouldlast no longer than 10–15 min and be followed by an opportunity for thelearners to practice and apply their skills and knowledge.
Building on the adults’ previous experience and acknowledging and incorporating the vast array of experience an adult audience brings to alearning environment — The youth volunteers should use the adults’knowledge and experience to widen the scope of learning for otherparticipants.
Providing the learners with maximum control over the learning process,based on what is needed on the job — The instructor should be a facilitator, rather than a content specialist, and should provide options to meetindividual needs and interests.
Teaching through active participation, involving adults in the learningprocess so that they learn by doing — The youth volunteers should maximize the integration of learning by seeing, hearing, talking, and doing.
Using the whole–part sequencing technique — The youth volunteersshould give the “big picture,” then move on to the details, and then relatethe parts to the whole.
Using association — The youth volunteers should focus on the adults’previous experiences, relate the new to the old, and build on knowninformation and skills so that the learners can associate past learning withnew situations.
Integrating holistic and analytic thinking — Using situation analysis, forexample, the youth volunteers should encourage the learners to makeinductions and explore whole pictures.
Recognizing that adults (and, indeed, individuals of every sort) learn atdifferent rates and in different ways — The youth volunteers should usea variety of instructional techniques to accommodate these differences.
Using meaningful instructional cues and providing a clear explanation ofwhat is to be learned, expected outcomes, and evaluation criteria — Theyouth volunteers should provide the learners with tests, exercises, andcues to determine when the learners have reached competency.
Ensuring comprehension and retention — The youth volunteers shouldcheck the learners’ progress frequently and design activities to reinforcelearning and thus to ensure comprehension and retention.
Providing feedback and remediation — The youth volunteers shouldprovide consistent information on how well the learners are progressing,give credit and recognition for success, offer remediation when errorsoccur, and explain why the learners were either right or wrong.

The involvement of graduates in the ALPID program will go a long way tosetting role models in the communities, as these graduates will be instrumental intransferring knowledge to the adults. It is anticipated that the communities will bevery receptive to the program. However, regions often have many cultural identities,and each culture may require a unique sensitivity in planning programs. Understanding cultural values is critical to any successful development program.

To achieve cultural sensitivity, the ALPID youth volunteers should familiarize themselves with the cultural practices of the target communities. They should besensitive to people’s beliefs, values, perceptions, focuses, aspirations, and hopes forself-development. It is important for the youth to take sociocultural realities intoaccount; for example, one should know what behaviours are not allowed in groups,the ways that groups make decisions, traditional values, norms of behaviour forindividuals of each gender and age group, and communication patterns. The youthshould involve themselves in the communities by participating in group activities,such as discussions, communal projects, weddings, funerals, and rituals open tostrangers; they should identify opinion leaders, accepted members of the community,and innovators who are likely to influence others, so as to gain acceptance and toidentify with their interest group.

Such participation and involvement in the communities will help the youthestablish relationships, and people will feel free to communicate information, as theyouth will be assimilated into the community. Traditionally, youth respect adults,and, to some extent, adults respect educated youth. It is important that mutual trustand respect be maintained between the youth and the adults, as this will makecommunication easy.

The relationship between the youth volunteer and the community will haveto be two-way. Communities learn from workers, and vice versa: workers should alsobe open and willing to learn from the communities. If the volunteer workers believethat they know everything and have the solutions to the problems and that all that thepeople have to do is to learn from them, then there will be no scope for any genuinedialogue between the people and the workers.

Young people are known to be energetic and dynamic. They always want tosee things happening faster, whereas adults like to work at their own pace. The youthvolunteer should start where the adults are and move at their pace while making iteasier for them to improve their pace for quick and desirable outcomes: forsustainable development you need sensitive workers who work as partners, believein people’s potentials, and respect people’s knowledge base.

Workers interested in genuine development must have faith in the people.They must believe in the people’s ability to learn, analyze, act, monitor, and evaluateand bring about the desired changes. Workers show that they have faith in the peopleby their behaviour, their actions, and the ways they communicate. If workers havefaith in people, they do not decide for them and lead them all the time, and the peopleare then able to take the initiative and responsibility for running their own programsand organizations.

Key stakeholders

Each of the ALPID focus areas will have primary and secondary stakeholders. Theprimary stakeholders will be the communities and groups of people who use theinformation packages. The secondary stakeholders will be the NGOs, churches,CBOs, research institutes, universities, and government ministries that work with thecommunities living in the areas where the telecentres will be located. Whereas thecommunities, individuals, and groups will use the telecentres to access informationto help them make independent decisions about their lives, the secondarystakeholders will use the telecentres to enhance their already ongoing activities,access data on which to base interventions, and decide on the best approach to usein dealing with the target communities and groups.

This section describes the primary and secondary stakeholders in each of theALPID focus areas. Secondary stakeholders were selected from a cross-section ofactors, and the list is by no means exhaustive. For example, Kenya has more than2 000 registered NGOs, more than 23 000 women’s groups, and an estimated 30 000CBOs.

Some of the NGOs were selected because of the impact they have had oncommunity development, vocational training, and income-generating activities andbecause of their technical and financial support for production-based SMEs. Theywere also selected because they have projects countrywide. The few CBOs wereselected to illustrate how communities respond to health problems and economicdeprivation. As stakeholders, their experience working with the communities will beof value to ALPID. ALPID will need to further assess some of these organizationsfor their suitability as program partners.

Health

The ATPS policy paper stated that the health component of ALPID will focus onclosed communities working and living in or around plantations and large farmingestates. As Kenya is a mainly agricultural country, there are many large Kenyan plantations and farms growing cereals (maize, wheat, barley, etc.), temporary industrialcrops (sugar cane and pyrethrum), permanent industrial crops (sisal, tea, coffee,wattle, coconut), and fruit (pineapple and cashew nuts). The government classifiesplantations and farms as “large farms” if they are 700 ha or more. Such plantationsand farms are mainly in Nyanza, Rift Valley, Central, Western, Coast, and Easternprovinces of Kenya (Table 1).

Plantations and farms employ a very large number of manual and factoryworkers. Some house their workers, whereas others rely on labour from surroundingvillages. As some of the large plantations offer health services to their workers,ALPID will have to do a needs assessment to see which estates provide what typesof health services.

It should be noted that these areas of Kenya show some of the worst problemsof underdevelopment: high infant mortality rates; low literacy rates; large numbersof high-school dropouts; and high incidence of disease, such as typhoid, malaria,upper respiratory infection, diarrhea, and TB. The nature of the work that mostpeople in the plantations do and their living conditions are contributing factors. Oneshould also note that large farming estates are really closed. The landlords treat themlike private property, which makes it extremely difficult to gain access to the peoplewho work there.

Table 2 lists some secondary stakeholders that provide health services to low-income communities in Kenya.

Small and medium-sized enterprises

Institutions that provide vocational training in the SME sector in Kenya are listed inTable 3. The table also lists organizations that implement or support SME,employment-generation, and poverty-alleviation projects or are involved in one wayor another in assisting SME production in Kenya.

Environmental management and research

Table 4 lists organizations that are involved in research, networking, or support forenvironmental activities.

Coordination modalities

Before the launch of ALPID, one will need to determine what coordinationmodalities to use. Initially, the ALPID concept will probably confuse some of thelocal NGOs and communities because they have not internalized the idea of ICTs aswidely as other ideas, such as that of voluntarism. NGOs may also feel threatened bya project that aims to empower their “clients” to make independent decisions. MostKenyan NGOs say they are committed to community empowerment, yet many ofthem disenfranchise any “beneficiaries” who dare to form alliances with rivalagencies.

Kenyan CBOs, on the other hand, expect their participation to yield materialgain. However, as access to ICTs will not yield “material gain” as they understandit, they might not immediately want to participate (that is, the involvement of CBOsin projects is harnessed to remuneration and not necessarily to better programdelivery). Coordination with government departments, moreover, sometimes dependson the individual head of a department and the prevailing political climate. Also,although the District Development Committee is supposed to coordinate alldevelopment activities in the district, this rarely happens.

A poverty-assessment study of five districts, conducted by MatrixDevelopment Consultants of Kenya, found that none of the towns had any organizedcoordination of development activities whatsoever. Some District DevelopmentOfficers did not know which NGOs were in their areas or what they were doingthere. As a result, there was a lot of duplication of effort. It is not unusual to findthree different NGOs training community health workers in one slum area. ALPIDcould create opportunities for some NGOs, especially those mentioned in thischapter, to enhance their organization (and hence project capability) by establishingcoordination modalities acceptable to most stakeholders.

Experience in Kenya shows that when people are consulted about new projects without being patronized, they are ready to cooperate. For example, during aprogram-formulation process in Migori town, an NGO consulted the entire population of potential stakeholders, seeking their views. After several meetings, a program-management committee was formed, with all stakeholders represented. Whatis unique about this experience is that the people in that town had never met beforeto discuss their common problems. The town councillors, though elected, thoughtthey had all the answers and did not need to consult the people. Because thecommittee was able to consult and compromise on issues, the projects they identifiedas priorities were funded. ALPID could also be of service to the Kenyan governmentby providing data on local conditions and by training government extension workers.

Before finalizing coordination modalities, the program organizers will haveto discuss the concept of ALPID with a few, but diverse, NGOs, CBOs, developmentdepartments of church organizations, and relevant government ministries to gaugetheir perception of the project and include their suggestions for effectiveprogramming for ALPID.

References

CBS (Central Bureau of Statistics). 1994. Kenya population census, 1989. Volume I. CBS,Ministry of Finance and Planning, Nairobi, Kenya. 412 pp.

——— 1986. Statistical abstract, 1986. Government Printer, Nairobi, Kenya.

——— 1995. Statistical abstract, 1995. CBS, Ministry of Finance and Planning, Nairobi,Kenya.

Chambers, R. 1992. Rural appraisal: rapid, relaxed, and participatory. University of Sussex,Brighton, UK. Institute of Development Studies Discussion Paper 311.

Eade, D.; Williams, S. 1995. The Oxfam handbook of development and relief. Oxfam,Oxford, UK. 3 vols.

GOK (Government of Kenya). 1979. Fourth development plan, 1979–1983. GovernmentPrinter, Nairobi, Kenya.

¹ The 8–4–4 system of education has 8 years of primary school, 4 years of secondaryschool, and 4 years of university; and the 7–6–3 system had 7 years of primary school, 4 years ofordinary-level and 2 years of advanced-level high school, and 3 years of university (based on theBritish educational system). Return

Document(s) 6 de 11