Documento(s) 2 de 2

Community-based management

Community regulations have evolved into complex fishing “accords” as a result of the concern of riverside communities with their livelihood. Such agreements have apparently developed to protect the fishing rights of community members and seem not to be motivated by environmental considerations.⁸¹¹ The agreements are forged in meetings, occasionally attended by the fishers associations, and are based on community needs. Nowadays, such fishing accords are common along the Amazon flood-plain. Câmara and McGrath (1995) registered 65 lakes in the mid-Amazon River region whose use is regulated by such accords. In a 50 km section of the Lower Solimões River at least 4 floodplains lakes are so managed.

Sustainable community-based management of a common fisheries resource has been the aim of recent projects in the Middle Amazon and Solimões rivers.⁸¹² Despite institutional and methodological differences, these projects have been evaluating how riverside populations exploit the fishery, and how they organise and relate with their neighbours.

The floodplain lakes of Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve have been categorised for different uses or scales of exploitation.⁸¹³ Preliminary evaluations indicated that tambaqui catches were higher in protected (unfished) than in exploited lakes, suggesting that part of the stock was finding refuge in the protected areas.⁸¹⁴ Landings from the Reserve in Tefé, the nearest city, also dropped from 18% to 9% of the total landings in four years, indicating a reduction in exploitation by the fishing fleet. In Middle Amazon River, bigger catches and higher income per fishing time were reported in lakes managed by fishing accords.⁸¹⁵ However, it is not yet clear if lake-management is a sustainable activity. Câmara and McGrath (1995) found that people on the island of Ituqui needed an area larger than the lake they lived on to make their annual catches sustainable.

These studies suggest that community-based management can be a promising alternative for Amazonian fisheries, at least in some areas. To succeed, however, relations between stakeholders will have to improve, and in some cases residents may have to reduce their consumption of the

⁸¹¹ Ruffino, 1999

⁸¹² McGrath et al., 1994; Ayres et al., 1998

⁸¹³ Ayres et al., 1998

⁸¹⁴ Costa, 1998

⁸¹⁵ McGrath et al., 1994

resources. The advantages of this management strategy for conservation of fish diversity are not clear, since the communities seem in some cases to be depleting the fish stocks of “their” lakes. Additional attention to conservation will have to be included in plans, perhaps through environmental education. Isaac et al. (1998) further discussed this new approach to fisheries management.

An additional advantage of community management is that the state plays a limited role in enforcement. Regionally, IBAMA is implementing fishing accords. In the Lower Solimões River, for example, these accords are agreed upon in community meetings and submitted to IBAMA. The Agency then sends staff to train residents for assuring compliance. Community members approach any transgressor and encourage compliance. If abuse persists, IBAMA agents are called in. The same system is also being used in the Mamirauá Reserve.⁸¹⁶

Regulating Amazonian fisheries is a difficult task. However, there is consensus in the region that no management policy can be successful without the participation of those who use the resource. Lack of user-group participation in planning and monitoring has been a major factor in the lack of compliance with existing regulations. Community management initiatives are to a large extent a response to the community’s lack of participation in the formal process. Through these fishing accords civil society is developing an alternative to the conventional management model and at the same time regulating fishing activity to address community management objectives.

Community-based management of Amazon fisheries poses several important questions. Are restrictions on gear, season, etc. sufficient to manage the resources efficiently? Is it necessary to restrict effort by limiting the number of fishers? If yes, what should the other fishers do?

This leads to other important questions: how does one evaluate the success of such lake management systems, and how does one predict the effects of regulatory measures on both natural and social environments? Much additional information is needed before this kind of trade-off can be satisfactorily assessed.

Another challenge is the monitoring and evaluation of community management systems. Community-level data for monitoring lake-fisheries are virtually non-existent. Collecting data is another traditional

⁸¹⁶ Ayres et al., 1998

responsibility of the federal government in which community participation is urgently needed to ensure user-group involvement in all stages of management.

A fourth question is the efficacy of the lake reserve model for the management of fish stocks. Many commercially important species, though little studied, have complex migratory cycles and use a variety of environments over the course of their lives, some of which would be protected by lake reserves and others not. It seems evident that it will be necessary to manage migratory species from a macro (regional) perspective, while community management will be most effective on a smaller geographic scale. Other kinds of policy and technical measures will be needed to adequately protect large migratory species.

A final issue is the capacity of communities to enforce management rules. Enforcement is typically easiest when infractions involve fishers from outside the community, and far more complicated for controlling the community itself. Lack of unity and consensus keeps rules from gaining maximum support among the community members. Despite these concerns, community-based management seems to be a promising development.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CONSERVATION AND RESEARCH

Most authors now agree that Amazon fisheries should be managed at the species or species group level.⁸¹⁷ Barthem et al. (1997) argued that piramutaba, which undergoes extensive migrations and is mostly exploited by a small fishing fleet based in the estuary, is suitable for conventional regulations based on mesh size and limitation of fishing effort. Barthem and Goulding (1997) recommended increasing the minimum mesh size of the estuary fishing fleet to 12 cm in order to reduce the impact on juveniles and consequently the fishing pressure on the stock. Barthem et al. (1997) think that the pressure of the artisanal fisheries on piramutaba is negligible. The dourada, which is also exploited in the estuary, could also be managed this way, but the authors refrained from proposing any specific strategy.

⁸¹⁷ Isaac et al., 1993; Barthem et al., 1997

Fisheries management of tambaqui, curimatã, jaraqui, matrinxã and pacu must employ a different strategy. Restricting the fisheries of these species during the migration period is difficult to enforce. However, their young live in the floodplain, and limiting fisheries in the floodplain could be an effective management tool.⁸¹⁸ Barthem et al. (1997) also recommend the creation of floodplain reserves to manage these species. These reserves would also protect adults when they are not migrating, creating temporary refuges for the shoals.

IBAMA, the official regulatory agency for Amazon fisheries, seems receptive to suggestions from the scientific community. Recently it proposed watershed-specific regulations as part of the Program of Inland Fisheries and Management of River Basins.⁸¹⁹ This Program groups the regulations by river basin and therefore allows decentralised and more flexible decisions. Ordinance 07/96 allows regional IBAMA headquarters to propose fishing regulations such as closures (Table 3). Ordinance 08/ 96 proposes size-limit regulations for four Amazonian fish. The Agency has also published the procedures for the establishment of participatory community management.⁸²⁰ Riverside communities have used this type of informal management on “fishing accords” for some time and IBAMA’s recognition is a step closer towards its legalisation.

TABLE 3. Types of fishing regulations applied by IBAMA in the Amazon Basin

⁸¹⁸ Barthem et al., 1997

⁸¹⁹ Fisher et al., 1992

⁸²⁰ IBAMA, 1997

Further research on impacts of habitat destruction on fish stocks is needed before proper recommendations can be presented. Although it sounds obvious that the destruction of floodplain vegetation will affect fish assemblages, experience drawn from the reservoir studies mentioned above suggests that the expected impacts do not always occur. Experimental studies are needed to establish causal relationships between habitat modification and fisheries. These types of studies have been initiated but still have a way to go before objective conclusions can be drawn.

The long-term biological survey of closed reservoirs should become part of the agendas of local scientific institutions. Research in these reservoirs may follow the usual descriptive approach, but more attention should be directed to hypothesis testing using existing baseline information on the impacts of reservoirs on riverine stocks.

Mercury pollution in rivers should be controlled immediately. One possible way to do so would be to restrict the selling of the metal to large mining companies, which have trained personnel and are theoretically easier to monitor. Controlled sales are applied to chemical reagents used to process cocaine, such as chloroform and acetone, and could be applied to mercury as well. However, to assume that IBAMA or local environmental agencies would have the capacity to control the use of mercury by wildcat miners would be naïve. IBAMA has neither the equipment nor the personnel to do so, and other agencies would need to become involved.

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