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Literature review

Survey of institutions and centres

A questionnaire was also sent to all institutions included in the above list to seek further information on their WDM activities. Twenty-two institutions responded, and an analysis of the completed questionnaires showed that: 

• About 77% of the respondents indicated that WDN was one of their primary areas of research, as compared to 30% for supply management issues and 23% for environmental and other water issues. 

Other research foci reported included: 

• irrigation performance improvement, holistic monitoring and evaluation (postreview) of irrigation development; 
• environment; 
• wastewater reuse in industry and irrigation; 
• climate change impacts; and 
• natural resources. 
• Finally, 46% of respondents reported receiving some funding for research from government sources, with a similar percentage receiving funding from international donors, and 31% reporting funding support from universities. 

Current WDM research projects
A comprehensive list of all WDM research projects reported by the 22 respondents is provided below. 

• Water supply practices and WDM. 
• Use of reclaimed wastewater for irrigation and water recycling in industry. 
• Effect of current water supply practices on drinking water quality. 
• Automation of water service systems. 
• Institutional management and building capacity. 
• Developing courses for basic training in WDM within the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC). 
• Conservation programs, public awareness, and water quality improvement. 
• Tariff studies and determination of the real costs of water services. 
• Reduction of water losses and more efficient water use. 
• WDM based on efficient uses. 
• Water pollution reduction and control. 
• Optimal use of marginal water. 
• Water policies and strategies to increase the efficiency of irrigation systems. 
• Improved hardware and software for irrigation system management. 
• Actual crop water requirements. 
• Consumptive water use under various conditions. 
• Improvement of water-use efficiency. 
• Reuse of low-quality water in irrigation. 
• Determination of performance criteria and indicators for different irrigation schemes. 
• Regional symposium on water use and conservation. 
• Integrated water management under the aegis of the United Nations Economic Commission for West Asia (ECWA). 
• Irrigation water management. 
• The use of treated wastewater in agriculture. 
• Allocation by various forms of water markets. 
• Reuse of treated wastewater. 
• Crop water requirements at various locations. 
• WDM strategies for Jordan, Israel, and Palestine. 
• Integrated models of water management covering both water supply and demand issues. 

Findings and recommendations

Substantial research is still needed to develop improved irrigation techniques, particularly those adapted for the use of marginal waters, in addition to associated technology transfer activities, which will be essential to further increase irrigation efficiency. Research is also needed to determine the socioeconomic and environmental impacts of these new techniques. And while it is crucial to improve the performance of agricultural water use, it is equally important to assess the social and political impacts of diverting agricultural water to municipal and industrial (M&I) uses and to assure the adequacy of water quality if irrigation water is to be replaced with treated wastewater. 

Demand management is not limited to on-farm measures and practices. Emphasis on appropriate water conservation policies should begin as soon as possible, especially in countries that are not self-sufficient in water. A water official I met on one of my visits said, "Only when we feel threatened by water shortages like you in Jordan will we start thinking about demand management." It is true that supply-side management is more politically attractive than demand management, which is both socially and politically controversial. Nevertheless, a campaign to conserve water needs to be introduced gradually in the region. 

The marginal cost of saving one cubic metre of water is far below the cost of producing a new one. Reduction in municipal water-use losses, installation of water-saving devices in homes and gardens, enforcement of water conservation laws, pricing policies, metering, and conservation incentives can all contribute significantly to saving precious water. Public awareness programs can help reinforce the need to conserve water resources. 

There is also a need to upgrade and rehabilitate water distribution networks where possible, introduce automatic control systems, develop human resources, and adopt advanced water management techniques. 

Private-sector involvement in water resource management is gaining momentum. Unfortunately, there is little information about this aspect among either decision-makers or researchers. 

Country-level recommendations
What follows is a survey of water management research activities in a number of MENA countries. 

Jordan, with its severe water constraints, can make gains through water demand management and conservation; in addition, it can improve water quality by reducing salinity and pollution. These are the most cost-effective options, and, given the huge expense of the long-distance transfer of water and the slow progress in desalinization technology, they may be the only appropriate options. Improvement of irrigation practices, use of treated wastewater, and rehabilitation and upgrading the M&I networks are a priority. Pricing and metering mechanisms, as well as regulation, are gaining momentum. 

Syria seems to be engaged mostly in water resource exploitation activities. The country has ample potential for additional water use and groundwater extraction. However, it needs to consider its stream flow and environmental needs, as well as the possibility that water resource developments in neighbouring countries may considerably reduce the volume of Euphrates River water available to it. This may require a greater focus on WDM and conservation activities. 

Egypt has entered into a period of emphasis on limiting water demand and improving water quality. The renewable freshwater supply from the Nile River is already fully exploited and the system is essentially closed. The most promising means for further water development activities involves real conservation (careful attention must be given to reuse of return flows and water quality issues) and water basin-wide system efficiency enhancement, where a considerable number of programs have been undertaken. Reuse of wastewater and attention to actual crop requirements to improve the efficiency of irrigation is essential. 

Morocco has some way to go in both water resource research exploitation and WDM/conservation activities. It still has a large potential for water storage development in some river basins. However, momentum is growing on the need for conservation through demand reduction and improved efficiency of water use in other basins. Special attention is being given to integrating water quality and quantity issues as well as collaborative problem solving. 

Tunisia has focused its demand management practices mostly on irrigated agriculture. Private-sector participation in introducing modern irrigation techniques is being rewarded by ample subsidies of 60% of the cost. Wastewater reuse in agriculture is also practised. 

Israel is carrying on extensive research on water resource demand management, including conservation and recycling, conflict mediation and resolution related to water use and allocation, market-based redistribution, and water demand forecasting, in addition to studies on national water markets, genetic engineering, and agricultural technology. It can play a major role in technology transfer because of its knowledge of modern irrigation techniques and the use of treated wastewater in agriculture. 

Yemen is interested in water resource exploitation activities. It has a rapidly growing need for conservation through demand reduction and improved efficiency of water use, and should give special attention to integrating the quality and quantity of its water. 

Turkey is conducting research on water resource exploitation. In parts of the country that are self-sufficient in water (have a water surplus), it is studying ways to improve water storage facilities as well as WDM practices. 

Palestine is mainly interested in WDM issues and concerns, a result of water shortages and strict Israeli regulations. 

Among the MENA countries, which are among the driest regions of the world, it is the author's view that Israel is the leader in WDM practices, with Jordan second. 

All of these countries have now entered the WDM development phase, and need to prepare for it well in advance. To shift from water use development (a supply management issue) to WDM they need to resolve the political, social, financial, economical, environmental, and technical issues by devoting considerable effort, thought, and planning (and collaborative problem solving) to it. 

A WDM network
A network is needed to develop an information system on WDM-related matters that can be shared nationally and regionally. The aim of this network should be to achieve communication, cooperation, coordination, and collaboration (C4). Ideally, it should assist each country to develop an institutional framework to address WDM issues. It should be an open system, in the sense that it can be modified and further developed by all the countries of the region in cooperation, or individually, with the assistance of IDRC or any interested donors. In this way, the information and experience of other countries could by shared by water experts and planners both locally and regionally. 

It is very important to emphasize that the overall goal of the WDM network be to stimulate C4 between the countries of the region on WDM-related issues on the basis of mutual benefits. 

An electronic monthly or quarterly newsletter on WDM should be established, with contributions from water experts and researchers in the field. 

The role of IDRC and other donors to WDM
To enhance and support WDM activities, the following objectives must be attained with the assistance of the donors. 

1. Improved management of the water sector. 
2. Implementation of a long-term investment program to improve the efficiency and quality of modern water conservation devices and to expand their adoption. 
3. A major program to improve and augment wastewater reuse. 
4. Assistance for farmers in the region to develop and adapt to higher-value and less water-intensive cropping patterns. 
5. Use of demand management techniques to build efficient, effective, and equitable water use models where these are needed. 

Documento(s) 4 de 17