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Readers of this book are likely to possess some general knowledge of Islam as a religion, or to be able to find information about it elsewhere; but they are less likely to be familiar with the Islamic sources upon which our discussions, arguments, and conclusions are based. Accordingly, these sources are briefly described here.

Sharia or Islamic law, which is frequently referred to in this book, covers all aspects of the Islamic faith, including beliefs and practices. Sharia is derived primarily from the Quran and the sunnah (the way of life of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh),¹ as known from hadith, or documented narrations of what the Prophet said and did), and also through ijtihad (inquiry, interpretation, and innovation by Muslim scholars). To be academically valid, the presentation of the Islamic perspective on any issue must be based upon these sources, particularly the first two. Therefore, to be consistent with all legitimate discussions of Islam, this book quotes both the Quran and the sunnah extensively.

The Quran is the primary source for Islamic values.² Muslims believe that it is the exact word of Allah revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) through the Angel Gabriel. While the Quran does contain some specific prescriptions that rank as legal, primarily it establishes a general set of moral guidelines – a compass for Muslims to use in following an Islamic way of life. The Quran says of itself that "Here is a plain statement to men,³ a guidance and instruction to those who fear Allah."⁴

The sunnah reflects what the Prophet said, did, or tacitly approved. In Islam, following the example of the Prophet is given such importance because the Quran instructs Muslims to follow him: for example, "O ye who believe! obey Allah and obey the Apostle."⁵ For Muslims, the Prophet was the perfect human role model and leader, and the society he built around him is the model for a caring, equitable society. The degree of importance attached to the Prophet in Islam may not find parallel in some other religions. If the Quran is a compass for Muslims, the sunnah is a more detailed map for the human journey on this earth.

Some of the sahaba, or companions of the Prophet (pbuh), memorized and wrote down what the Prophet said or did. These documented narrations are called hadith, and they were later checked for authenticity, based upon such factors as independent confirmation, soundness of the chain of narration, credibility of narrators in the chain, and consistency with other hadith and the Quran. In specific cases, known as hadith qudsi, Muslims believe that the Prophet's sayings are the revelation of Allah expressed in the Prophet's own words. The science of hadith criticism (mustalan al-hadith) practiced by Islamic scholars also includes the examination of context: that is, is the hadith relevant only to the specific time and situation, or is it relevant to other cases? Of the many collections of hadith, six are considered to be the most accurate and reliable: those of Imam Al-Bukhari, Imam Muslim, Imam Al-Tirmidhi, Imam Malik, Imam Abu-Dawood, and Imam Ibn Majah. We have relied in this publication on the collection of hadith in the Alim CD-ROM for consistency and ease of follow-up research; occasionally we cite from the Hadith Encyclopedia CD version.⁶

In addition to the Quran and the sunnah, ijtihad can be used to make rulings that address new questions related to changing conditions. Essentially, ijtihad is the development of Sharia from its sources (that is, the Quran and the sunnah). The five tools used to carry out ijtihad are qiyas (analogy), ijma (unanimous agreement of jurists), istihsan (juristic preference), maslaha or istislah (public interest or human welfare), and istishab (continuity or permanence). Although some inquiry is indeed prohibited in Islam (bid'ah sayyi'ah), such as questioning key articles of Islamic faith – for example, the oneness of God – there is an increasing need for multidisciplinary creative inquiry into new problems and questions arising in today's dynamic society, following the guidelines already established by the Quran and sunnah. It is in the spirit of this type of inquiry that this book was undertaken.

Notes

¹ "Peace be upon him" (pbuh) is an expression of respect which Muslims use when mentioning all prophets in whom they believe, including Jesus and Moses. Most of the workshop participants used this expression in their chapters, and it is used in the introductory parts of this book, including the summary chapter.

² Throughout this book, citations from the Quran are in italics. For consistency, all Quranic references have been taken from Abdullah Yusuf Ali's translation (Yusuf Ali 1977).

³ The only authentic form of the Quran is its original Arabic version, and in the Arabic language, every word has a masculine and feminine form, with the masculine form taking grammatical precedence. Therefore, whenever a Quranic or hadith reference uses the term "he" in a general sense, the implication is "he or she." This is supported by the following hadith where a woman asked the Prophet if a general ruling he had addressed to men was also applicable to women, and he responded, "Yes. Women are the counterpart of men" (Abu-Dawood: 236).

⁴ 3:138.

⁵ 4:59.

⁶ The Alim CD-ROM includes the hadith qudsi, along with hadith compilations of Sahih Al-Bukhari, Al-Muwatta, and abridged versions of Sahih Muslim, Al-Tirmidhi, and the Sunan of Abu-Dawood (Shah 1986–96). The Hadith Encyclopedia also contains valuable material (Sakhr 1992).

REFERENCES

Sakhr (1992), Hadith Encyclopedia (CD version 2.0), Sakhr Software Company, Sakhr Building, Nasr Company, Free Zone, Cairo.

Shah, Shahid N. (1986–96), The Alim for Windows (release 4.5), ISL Software Corporation.

Yusuf Ali, A. (1977), The Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation, and Commentary, American Trust Publications for The Muslim Student Association of the United States and Canada, Plainfield, Ind.

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