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Introduction

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have the potential to enhance access, quality, and effectiveness in education in general and to enable the development of more and better teachers in Africa in particular. As computer hardware becomes available to an increasing number of schools, more attention needs to be given to the capacity building of the key transformers in this process, namely, teachers.

The objective of this chapter is to share some of the lessons learned in a project aimed at the training of teacher educators in the integration of ICTs in the classroom. Based on this reflection, areas of attention in the promotion of the appropriate use of ICTs by teachers are identified.

ICT AND TEACHER EDUCATION

ICTs are one of the major contemporary factors shaping the global economy and producing rapid changes in society. They have fundamentally changed the way people learn, communicate, and do business. They can transform the nature of education – where and how learning takes place and the roles of students and teachers in the learning process.

Education in the East African region faces a number of problems. These problems include the shortage of qualified teachers, very large student populations, high drop-out rates of students and teachers, and weak curricula. All of these negative aspects result in poor delivery of education. The education crisis is worsened by the devastating effects of the HIV/AIDS pandemic, increasing poverty, a brain drain in the teaching community, budgetary constraints, poor communication, and inadequate infrastructure.

While societies in the region undergo rapid changes as a result of increased access to information, the majority of the school-going youth continue to undergo traditional rote learning. Very little is done to take advantage of the wealth of information available on the Internet. Whereas the processing of information to build knowledge is one of the essential literacy skills vital for the workforce in the 21st century, it is often overlooked in current educational practices.

In order to function in the new world economy, students and their teachers have to learn to navigate large amounts of information, to analyse and make decisions, and to master new knowledge and to accomplish complex tasks collaboratively. Overloaded with information, one key outcome of any learning experience should be for learners to critically challenge the material collected in order to decide whether it can be considered useful input in any educational activity. This is the basis for the construction of knowledge. The use of ICTs as part of the learning process can be subdivided into three different forms: as object, aspect, or medium (Plomp, ten Brummelhuis, & Pelgrum, 1997).

• As object, one refers to learning about ICTs as specific courses such as 'computer education.' Learners familiarise themselves with hardware and software including packages such as Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and others. The aim is computer literacy.

• As aspect, one refers to applications of ICTs in education similar to what obtains in industry. The use of ICTs in education, such as in computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing, are examples.

• ICTs are considered as a medium whenever they are used to support teaching and learning.

The use of ICT as a medium is rare (Plomp, et al., 1997), in sub-Saharan Africa where the availability of resources is a major obstacle to the widespread integration of ICTs in education.

Technology is not new to education. However, contemporary computer technologies, such as the Internet, allow new types of teaching and learning experiences to flourish. Many new technologies are interactive, making it easier to create environments in which students can learn by doing, receive feedback, and continually refine their understanding and build new knowledge. Access to the Internet gives unprecedented opportunities in terms of the availability of research material and information in general. This availability of research material and information happens to both inspire and threaten teachers.

The computer equipment in the few fortunate schools that have them tends to be underused and lacks appropriate education content. Commonly, the computer equipment is used as objects in computer lessons. A few other subject teachers undertake courses in software packages but are unable to integrate or meaningfully insert this knowledge in their daily teaching work. A worrying tendency is that boys are the targets rather than girls when investments in ICT hardware and training are made (Kinyanjui, 2002). If not taken seriously, this will increase gender disparities in education in the sub-region.

Respective governments in Eastern Africa recognise that ICTs have a critical role to play in improving education and are engaged in drafting ICT policies or ICT chapters in a number of development plans across economic sectors. The policies tend to clearly link development to a forward-looking educational sector and increased investment in human resources and ICTs.

In the education sector, curriculum review efforts are geared towards modernisation, including the incorporation of important ICT components. However, even the reviewed curricula tend to treat ICT as a subject rather than as an application tool that can be used in all other subjects, in teaching and learning. Very recent discourse indicates that future curriculum reviews may consider a fully fledged ICT mainstreaming process.

Teacher education institutions and programmes have the critical role to provide the necessary leadership in adapting pre-service and in-service teacher education to deal with the current demands of society and economy. They need to model the new pedagogies and tools for learning with the aim of enhancing the teaching-learning process. Moreover, teacher education institutions and programmes must also give guidance in determining how the new technologies can best be used in the context of the culture, needs, and economic conditions of their country. The case study reported below has tried to do just that.

A Case Study: The Educational ICT Training Programme at KTTC

A hum of activity fills the room. In one corner, two students are looking for information on trends and issues in vocational training. They have an assignment to undertake an international comparison. Next to them on the Internet, sits their head of department, a much older man. He is looking at management techniques. He started using the Learning Resource Centre a few weeks before when he had no clue about using a computer but learned how to browse in one afternoon. He is stuck and asks the students next to him for help. They happily assist him. It is hard to find the lecturers among all the learners, at first. They browse and discuss. KTTC has changed all because of the Learning Resource Centre.

Learning Resource Centre

The Learning Resource Centre (LRC) was established using flexible modes and innovative methods as a learning centred place where lecturers and students come to teach, learn, or undertake research. The LRC now embodies an ICT unit of 48 networked computers next to a documentation unit and working space. UNESCO provided funding to link the ICT unit to a wireless satellite connection that provides 24-hour Internet access. The LRC remains open after hours and on Saturdays to allow lecturers, students, and non-teaching staff to browse. This is done at a fee of one Kenya shilling per minute – about 75 cents.

The LRC is a project of the Kenya Technical Teachers College (KTTC), funded by the Flemish Office for Development Cooperation and Technical Assistance (VVOB), with some additional support from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). The KTTC established the LRC in 2002 as part of its educational management programme. The LRC integrates the provision of the Internet into a well developed capacity building programme, mainly targeting teacher educators, in-service and pre-service teachers, but also reaching out to the whole KTTC community.

Action research is undertaken on a regular basis in the LRC to improve practice, assess impact, and to inform institutional policy. In this way, the researchers and project personnel try to look at the deeper meaning of teachers' ICT experiences.

What was done?

In January 2002, the KTTC adopted an open learning philosophy in order to offer future learners a wider choice of modes of study through a mixed mode delivery (educational management programme). By blurring the boundaries between classroom learning and learning at a distance, KTTC hopes to reduce or even eliminate the weaknesses of both and benefit from their strengths instead in a strategy called flexible learning. Workshops and training took place to successfully introduce flexible and complex learning in and outside the classroom.

ICTs can be used to support traditional forms of learning, more flexible ways of learning as well as transform learning. Therefore, the Learning Resource Centre at KTTC established an ICT training programme specifically targeted at teacher educators. It focuses on the I and the 'C' of ICT, rather than concentrating on the traditional 'T' for technology. The teachers not only 'learn to use ICT,' but – more importantly — 'use ICTs to learn.' The case study shows that the access to the Internet triggers new attitudes towards learning and teaching.

Integration of ICTs in the Classroom: The Practice

At KTTC more than 100 teacher educators have been trained in ICT, Internet research, modern teaching/learning approaches, and the development and writing of open learning materials. Most of this training takes place during short and regular in-house workshops. Almost 500 pre- and in-service teachers have been offered training on Internet research.

Basic ICT skills training was offered at the beginning of the project. Currently, these skills are being taught/learned with the assistance of self-study CD ROMs. The focus of the capacity building programme has changed. Workshops concentrate on specific education-related themes and tasks, including efficient Internet research, the pedagogical rationale for ICT integration, problem-based learning, innovative instructional methods such as flexible learning and information literacy. Lecturers attend the workshops when they feel ready and are offered almost unlimited access to the computers in order to experiment. It is compulsory for students to attend workshops as part of their curriculum. Most lecturers and students start using the Internet for personal searches. Once they feel somewhat comfortable with the computer, then they start discovering resources for more professional use. The provision of Internet access has triggered interest and enthusiasm in both lecturers and students to undertake training in how to deal with the wealth of information available to them.

Users initiate a search process to access relevant information and for means to integrate this information into learning and teaching practices. This search process promotes the use of higher order thinking and reasoning and problem-solving skills. Lecturers and students are guided through this process which ultimately leads to the efficient and effective handling of information and its incorporation in educational settings. During the first two years of the project, this flexible approach was possible because there was no ready-made training package. The programme was collaboratively constructed by both project advisors and beneficiaries, where both groups built on their respective learning experiences to establish best practices in a real constructivist approach. The approach was built on key principles of adult learning such as flexile and open learning while placing both curriculum and literacy issues higher than those of software and technology.

ICTs in distance education

Flexible learning is often taken as synonymous with distance education. Still, Collis and Moonen (2001) identified 19 different flexibility dimensions. Flexibility can involve options in course resources, in types of learning activities, in support for media learning, and many other possibilities. Indeed, flexibility is a characteristic that may satisfy many stakeholders in education (Kirkpatrick & Jakupec, 1999). More flexible offering and delivery of higher education may achieve the desirable social goals of increasing access to education and democratising teaching and the learning process by giving greater control to the learner. By freeing up the space, place, and time constraints of studying, it is possible to attract students who previously may not have been able to attend classes due to various life commitments. Taylor (1996) suggest that the term 'flexible' refers to 'practices which utilise the capacities for learner-learner and teacher-learner interaction made possible through recent developments in information and communication technology (ICT) to provide increased 'openness' in both on- and off-campus delivery of educational programs... we use the expression 'flexible modes of delivery' to capture this combination of philosophy and technology and quite explicitly recognise that this combination frees the provision of educational programs from both geographical and time constraints'. Integrating ICT in distance education is not only a way in which institutions can offer more open and flexible learning opportunities, but ICTs can even support the changes in pedagogy and teacher training as a whole.

It was understood from the very beginning that distance education required special planning and specific techniques for course design and that all depended on what type of delivery system would be chosen. Learning materials for any distance education programme must be developed within a contextual framework involving the learner, the curriculum, and the institution. The learning materials for distance education have to be specially designed according to the principles of self-directive learning. Therefore, the course must be very well structured, with clear objectives and well considered allocation of students' time. And ICTs must be used in innovative and motivating ways. Suitable combinations of media - print, audio, video, and technologies like computers and the Internet - must be selected according to the needs. VVOB Kenya initiated a series of workshops to do exactly that.

From "Learning to Use" to "Using to Learn"

The mere presence of computers or high speed access to the Internet does not imply high use, let alone educational use. Using the computer for word processing or simply as a delivery method does not ensure that the computer is used to address curricular objectives.

In the LRC project, it was found that both lecturers (teacher educators) and students (pre- and in-service teachers) go through three stages when learning how to integrate ICT into their work:

• Phase 1: Awareness

Staff and students are attracted by the Internet access. With very basic skills (e.g., from a one-day workshop or being shown by their colleagues), they browse the Internet, mostly for personal searches (e.g., farming, business, parenting) and for email. Teaching staff are confronted with a more "knowledgeable" group of students, who take their downloads to class.

• Phase 2: Guided Integration

Lecturers and students undertake a series of workshops and experiment with some of the applications. Integration generates some initial irritations and discomfort and requires individual attention by the LRC team. Staff and students understand how the integration of ICTs impact learning and teaching. Lecturers develop strategies to adapt their teaching to an information-rich environment.

• Phase 3: Realisation

ICT based work is central and students are involved in high level thinking, decision-making and problem solving. Some old practices become obsolete. The real issue is not if technology is used in the classroom, but whether technology is enhancing the learning process.

All learners go through these phases at their own pace. A group of lecturers and students can be categorised at various levels.

FINDINGS AND EFFECTS

The LRC programme's focus from "learning how to use" to "using to learn" seems to have given the learners considerable drive and motivation. Quite a few lecturers know how to browse and download necessary learning material (i.e. save and print), but have very little ICT skills. The opportunities to learn basic ICT skills are available to everyone, but a considerable group of users chooses to focus first on the Internet only. They typically rework the material downloaded from the web together with existing books and notes. The final product is then typed by assistants. These lecturers do not feel the need to learn how to use MS Word or other software. However, they intensively use the technology available to them and integrate the results in their daily work. As they become more independent learners, they do not need a teacher to guide them through the learning of basic ICT skills. A CD ROM usually will do, and in such an open and flexible learning environment, resistance to change is almost nonexistent.

The LRC has proved to be a huge success. It has become the department of ICT Integration and Open Learning' within the college offering services to the whole KTTC community and beyond. Real learning and action research take place at the new department with centralised resources and a professional service.

Research and evaluation indicate that exposure to ICTs has really changed the lives of lecturers and students in tremendous and positive ways. Students described the changes in their learning environment as follows (Janssens-Bevernage, 2002):

1. They have become more independent learners, who do not consider the lecturers as the sole sources of knowledge anymore.

2. They increasingly enjoy learning.

3. They enjoy the democratisation process taking place at classroom level.

4. They consider their lecturers as students themselves.

5. They have stopped spending considerable time and money running around libraries to look for information when given an assignment.

6. They are better able to assess educational practices and policies.

7. They are proud of being part of KTTC because the college is viewed by outsiders as innovative.

8. Students relate with others as they undertake research activities together and assist each other.

Lessons learned

"The more inspiring use of technology appears to be driven by the private sector, and then generally for ICT literacy courses for the general public. Software developed with educational functionality seems, on the whole, little inspired. This may be a function of budgets, but one wonders if there should not be more emphasis on developing stimulating ICT materials that can demonstrate to educators and their learners how the integration of technology can create far more interesting learning environments", (James, T., Hesselmark, O., Akoh, B., & Mware, L., 2003).

Available text-based training materials (mainly from donor-funded ICT projects) have similar weaknesses as mentioned above and tend to include many examples which are only relevant for learners in the West. A recent study by SchoolNet Africa (SchoolNet Africa – COL – IICD, 2004) identifies the critical need for much more contextualised learning materials on the Internet which have relevance for learners and teachers in developing countries from a language, cultural, and curriculum perspective. Programmes should be highly localised, with many references to the national curriculum and a large number of local examples. This is the only way to avoid the abstract, unattractive approaches of the available packages. Research indicates that it is essential to include an extensive component that is subject-related so that users can refer to practical examples for ICT-integrated teaching and learning. The modules should refer to the local curriculum in order to be as practical as possible.

The provision of Internet has to be part of a broader educational programme to ensure an impact on the learning and teaching culture. Action research was undertaken as part of the broader LRC experiment to assess how KTTC members perceived changes in organisational culture, including interrelations and teacher/learner attitudes. The assessment concluded that the provision of Internet facilities as part of a comprehensive capacity building programme tailor-made to the needs, contributed to a perceived change in culture at KTTC. Access to the Internet in the LRC was said to enhance a reading culture, break down barriers between young and old, establish a sense of community, entice a student-centred approach, and make learning and teaching more exciting. For example, at the time of the constitutional review process in Kenya, a group of lecturers undertook extensive research into other constitutions world wide and devised a set of proposals which were presented to and used in one of the meetings. This group of lecturers indicated that the Internet had assisted them in getting quality information and had made them more confident to speak out. The Internet had indirectly supported the democratisation process. In a society with poor access to information, the Internet plays an empowering role.

Another area of understanding illuminated through the pilot project is the culture and practices of the emerging "wired" society. Protocols and the etiquette of email, appropriate use of the Internet, familiarity with acceptable user policies, privacy, copyright practices, and other legal and ethical concerns in the online world all need to be mastered. This part of the learning process has had a positive impact on how lecturers and students perceive the value of the written word and the importance of culture in online communications and the need to communicate in a culturally sensitive manner.

SOME POLICY SUGGESTIONS FOR EFFECTIVE ICT TEACHER EDUCATION

No technology can fix bad educational philosophy, policy or practice, nor can it compensate for a lack of political commitment. The decisions about what to use, how and when, are political and educational decisions that must be made consciously and daringly (UNESCO, 2004).

Provide Training Programmes for Teachers

The provision of ICT access and an educationally sound ICT training programme can only have the required impact if the public administration fully supports this major transformation. Respective governments need to look carefully into the necessary pre-requisites and consequences of ICT integration at the level of curriculum development, the examination system, teacher incentives, among others. Efforts are needed to mainstream ICT appropriately in all subject curricula. The examination systems should be modernised to support ICT rich curricula.

As the first institutions are getting ready to offer comprehensive ICT teacher training based on educational principles and targeting subject teachers, the government could support the existing and upcoming professional development initiatives. A clear incentive package could make it attractive for teachers to undertake similar training.

Make ICT a Priority

As Carlson (2002) indicates, success in ensuring that teachers acquire the skills and knowledge they need to use technology effectively opens the door to all kinds of new educational opportunities for both teachers and students, and downstream economic opportunities for graduating youth and their countries. This success is the key to participation in the global knowledge economy. Accordingly, teacher professional development in the use and application of technology must be given the priority and resources it deserves, while still maintaining a constructively critical eye on its costs and methodologies.

Modernise Training and the Curricula

The fundamental aim is to give the learners the opportunity to become critical thinkers, problem solvers, information literate citizens, knowledge managers and, finally, team members who are proficient in collaborating with others. Meeting this aim requires a fundamental change in how teachers are trained and in curriculum development approaches.

Mainstream ICTs in all Subjects

ICTs should be infused into the entire curriculum. Throughout their teacher education experience and professional development programmes, pre- and in-service teachers should learn how to incorporate ICTs into their own subjects. Restricting technology experiences to a single course or a separate area of teacher education will not prepare students to be technology-using teachers. More attention is needed for this integration into the curricula. The focus seems to be on the classic 'Maths, Science, English' package, giving the dangerously wrong impression that ICTs cannot be integrated in all other subjects. The integration itself tends to be focused on technology rather than on information and communication.

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF SUBJECT TEACHERS

Governments should offer ICT professional development services to subject teachers rather than concentrating on the hiring of ICT teachers only. The focus should not be solely on technology skills.

CONCLUSION

ICTs in education are not transformative on their own. Transformation requires teachers who can use technology to improve student learning. The professional development of teacher educators in the area of ICT integration is essential. Unless teacher educators model effective use of technology in their own classes, it will not be possible to prepare a new generation of teachers who effectively use the new tools for teaching and learning.

The Kenyan Government together with a network of development partners – through the coordination efforts of Kenya SchoolNet – are currently looking into ways to use the LRC's best practices and lessons learned as a basis for a programme for ICTs in teacher education.

Many workshops have assisted ICT users with the integration of ICTs in the classroom. Insights and experience gained in the LRC can serve as an entry point in the development of a national/regional training programme. The LRC team has been involved in a number of workshops organised by SchoolNet Kenya and the Commonwealth of Learning who are taking the lead in securing funds for the development of an "educational ICT licence." This course concept is based on best practices gathered in the LRC project.

REFERENCES

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Carlson, S., (2002). The missing link in educational technology: trained teachers. http://www.TechKnowLogia.org

Collis, B., & Moonen, J., (2001). Flexible learning in a digital world: Experiences and expectations. London, UK: Kogan Page.

Cornille, B., (2003). Action Research in the living theory of educators of the higher diploma in educational management. Unpublished Action Research.

Heide, A., & Henderson, D., (1994). Active learning in the digital age classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Janssens-Bevernage, A., (2002). Internal assessment of how KTTC members perceive the changes in organisational culture brought about by the integration of an Internet facility into their working environment.(unpublished Action Research)

Kinyanjui, L., (2002). Preparing a workforce for the evolving information economy: a survey on ICT access and use in Kenya secondary schools. Nairobi: SchoolNet Kenya.

Kirkpatrick D., & Jakupec, V. Becoming flexible: what does it mean? In The convergence of distance and conventional education: Patterns of flexibility for the individual learner. USA: Routledge.

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Plomp, T., ten Brummelhuis, A., & Pelgrum, W.J., (1997). New approaches for teaching, learning and using information and communication technologies in education. Prospects – Quarterly Review of Education, 27 (3).

Robinson, B., (2001). Innovation in open and distance learning: some lessons from experience and research. In Innovation in open and distance learning: Successful development of online and web-based learning. London, UK: Kogan Page.

Taylor, P., (1996). Flexibility, technology and academics' practices: Tantalising tales and muddy maps. (EIP 96/11). Canberra: Department of Employment, Education and Training and Youth Affairs, Evaluations and Investigations Programme, Higher Education Division.

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