Document(s) 22 of 23

Mary Arquette is a Mohawk of the Wolf Clan and resides in Akwesasne. She is an environmental toxicologist and Doctor of Veterinary Medicine and has been a member of the Akwesasne Task Force on the Environment (ATFE) since 1986. She currently serves as the chairperson of the Research Advisory Committee for ATFE.

Maxine Cole is Bear Clan from the Mohawk Nation at Akwesasne and mother to one daughter, Kahentawaks. She is working on an M.Sc. in Epidemiology at the University of Ottawa. A member of ATFE since 1998, Maxine Cole was the principal investigator for the cultural resource study regarding the socio-cultural effects of the St Lawrence–FDR Power Project on the Mohawks of Akwesasne.

In 1953 the Federal Power Commission of the United States issued a fifty-year licence for the St Lawrence–FDR Power Project to the New York Power Authority (NYPA). The power project is a hydroelectric development on the St Lawrence River and connects the United States and Canada near the towns of Massena, New York, and Cornwall, Ontario. The dam was completed in 1958 and included development of the Seaway, which required excavation of the St Lawrence river bed to facilitate the passage of cargo ships from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes. The Great Lakes–St Lawrence River waterway provided a route from the Atlantic Ocean to the interior of the USA and Canada for cheaper and more massive import and export of both natural resources and manufactured goods between North America and global markets.

The NYPA began the relicensing process in 1995. In 1997 the Mohawks of Akwesasne began a parallel process with the NYPA to bring attention to the unresolved issues of the construction of the hydroelectric facility and excavation of the St Lawrence River. As part of the relicensing process, the NYPA is mandated under US federal legislation, the National Historic Preservation Act, Section 106, to define and identify traditional cultural properties within specific areas of the dam. Consequently, the traditional government and the two elected governments of Akwesasne formed the Mohawk Working Group and in 1999 secured a contract from the NYPA to identify the traditional cultural properties of the Mohawks of Akwesasne. The Mohawk Working Group delegated the work to the Akwesasne Task Force on the Environment (ATFE), which is a community-based organization founded to conserve, preserve, protect and restore the natural and cultural resources within the territory of Akwesasne. The ATFE works to fulfil the responsibilities that we as Onkwehon:we (Original People) have to the natural world to promote the health and survival of the sacred web of life for the next seven generations. The ATFE works with the traditional government and the elected governments of Akwesasne and with individuals to resolve environment issues.

First Words, on Respect and Responsibility

As Rotinonshonni or Haudenosaunee (People of the Longhouse), our perspective on the river and the relationships of respect and responsibility that should exist among all parts of creation are contained in the words of our Ohen:ton Karihwatehkwen (Thanksgiving Address). This teaching instructs us to believe in the interrelatedness and interdependency of all parts of the natural world. We believe that in order to gain a true understanding of any aspect of the natural world, respect must be shown for the entire web of relationships that exist and form our natural environment.

We strongly believe that the Ohen:ton Karihwatehkwen provides the only appropriate basis for reconciling the disruption of the natural state of the Kaniatarowanenne (St Lawrence River) and our larger environment and for charting a recovery from the changes caused by the St Lawrence–FDR Power Project. It places human beings firmly in an interdependent coequal relationship with what we know as other ‘nations’–these being the various elements of creation that others think of as separate species, natural forces and phenomena. Importantly, it places a burden of responsibility upon each nation to ensure the proper functioning of creation. The special set of responsibilities it places on the shoulders of human beings and the lessons it teaches about the fulfilment of our responsibility to the rest of creation make it a crucial teaching in the struggle to understand environmental and social justice. For this reason, and because the Ohen:ton Karihwatehkwen reflects the elegance and power of our narrative tradition, its substance and structure will be the foundation of our approach to addressing the problems before us and in working with the NYPA.

Two-Row Wampum

As told by our elders and other knowledge-keepers, when the Dutch first came to Turtle Island, the Rotinonshonni welcomed them as friends. As the two peoples lived side by side in peace and harmony, they decided to continue their friendship–a relationship based on respect for each other and a commitment to peace. The two peoples came to an agreement about the terms of the relationship, and to ensure that this agreement would pass on to succeeding generations, the Kahswenhtha (Two-Row Wampum) was created. The principles reflected in the Kahswenhtha have always guided the Rotinonshonni in the conduct of their relations with other nations, but the Kahswenhtha was especially created to govern the brotherly relations between the Rotinonshonni and the newcomers–a kinship that would provide mutual aid when necessary. These living principles, if respected, are still capable of ensuring just and peaceable relations between our peoples into the future. They will also ensure a respectful coexistence in the river of life for the Rotinonshonni and the newcomers, as was the original intent.

As a physical object, the Kahswenhtha is a belt of two purple rows of wampum (beads which are made from quohag shells) on a background of white wampum. In its design and colouring, the three white rows of wampum signify peace, friendship and respect between the parties to the agreement. The two rows of purple wampum symbolize a canoe and a sailing ship moving parallel to each other in the river of life, with the understanding that neither nation is to interfere with the other’s culture.

In essence, the canoe and the ship symbolize two distinct nations. This concept of a relationship reflects a deep spiritual commitment to the integrity of all peoples’ identity and right of self-determination. The Kahswenhtha instructs that we must not attempt to steer each other’s vessel. These ideas continue to be a fundamental principle in the Rotinonshonni’s negotiations with the newcomer nations. Any restoration and protection of the Kaniatarowanenne and its surroundings must consider the principles of the Kahswenhtha. If respected, the Kahswenhtha will help to establish a sustainable relationship, thus ensuring that restoration and protection of the environment will occur.

The issues before us present a complex web of problems. But the heart of the matter is simple: the Kahniakehaka (Mohawk or People of the Flint) have a special relationship with the Kaniatarowanenne, and this relationship has been undermined. The recent damming of the river has seriously altered the fabric of our community and all of the other nations in the natural world of this area and is in direct violation of the Kahswenhtha. As Kahniakehaka, along with our Rotinonshonni sisters and brothers, our identity is constituted in the values, principles and beliefs embedded in our ancient and living culture. For Rotinonshonni, the Kaniatarowanenne and the other waters in our territory are the bloodlines of Mother Earth: they are sacred and very much alive. The river, and all that it relates to, feeds and shelters, are part of our culture and our identity.

Robert Moses and the St Lawrence Seaway

Sadly, during the 1950s, the damming and industrialization of the Kaniatarowanenne dramatically altered our long-standing relation with the river. The master plan for this development included the construction of the St Lawrence River–FDR Power Project and the St Lawrence Seaway and the industrialization of the region. The people of Akwesasne named the power project and development of the Seaway ‘the Project’. In addition, it was understandable that the people would view the Project holistically because its proponents explained all the components of the development as a package deal. Robert Moses, chairman of the NYPA and an astute politician, engineer and the Project developer, expressed very clearly the ‘need’ to ‘develop’ the river. Also clear was Moses’ determination to see the Project completed in New York State.

Moses’ ideas for economic and energy development were the keys to his master plan and were to have the most impact on Mohawk life along the St Lawrence River. . . . By developing public hydroelectric power along the St Lawrence River . . . he would stimulate heavy industry and at the same time, seaway transport. By constructing a series of parks and parkways for tourism and recreational purposes, while providing special low rates for St Lawrence residents, he would counter any local opposition to the project. By improving the state’s total economic picture, he would satisfy the utility companies’ quest for increased profit margins. By sacrificing Indian land or those that were claimed by Indians, who were small powerless racial minority largely outside the American electoral process, he would not alienate white voters and their political representatives, especially in the economically depressed North Country. . . . Dams, reservoirs, and power development were part of the 1950s idea of progress and were seen as more important than Indians and the protection of their treaty rights. (Hauptman 1986: 141)

Incentives for Development

As part of the package deal, Project proponents encouraged several industries to move to the region, attracting them with the promise of cheap hydroelectric power provided by the dam. The General Motors Corporation–Central Foundry Division (now Powertrain Division), Reynolds Metals, and the Aluminum Company of America (ALCOA) have utilized this inexpensive electricity for more than forty years to operate facilities in Massena, New York. Currently, the three industries receive an allocation of 57 per cent of the total hydro power generated from the St Lawrence–FDR Power Project. The power of Kaniatarowanenne has been used to import raw products for these industries and export processed materials, commodities and goods to global markets. As a result of this industrial activity, toxic-laden waste was dumped in and adjacent to the river. In effect, the power dam, owned by the NYPA, a public utility, has served to subsidize the environmental contamination of the St Lawrence, Racquette and Grasse rivers and their ecosystems.

As understood by Kahniakehaka, once the energies of the many nations of the ecosystem had been altered and harmed by dams–due to flooding; continual changes in water levels, nutrient levels, and flow rates; the loss of spawning grounds; entrainment; and now pollution–they could no longer fulfil the responsibilities given to them by the Creator. The scientific view is that specific forms of damage have resulted from the accumulated harm caused by the damming of the river and its resulting industrialization. Our view is that as a consequence of these actions, the reciprocal relationships between human beings and non-human nations have been negatively affected. By the mid-1980s numerous scientific studies reflected what our people noticed years before. Undeniable evidence showed that the damming of the river and industrial activity located along it were endangering the well-being of humans, land, plants, water, animals, fish and the skyworld.

The Kahniakehaka people believe that it is our responsibility to speak on behalf of the other nations whose lives are as inextricably tied to the health of the Kaniatarowanenneh, as they are for us. For that reason, the expressions of concern presented here today are not only on behalf of the people, but on behalf of all the elements of creation who are directly and indirectly impacted by the New York Power Authority power-generating facility on the Kaniatarowanenneh. (Joyce Mitchell-King, Kahniakehaka Nation Council of Chiefs 1997)¹

It is this profound sense of responsibility and the sincere desire to preserve our culture that motivate our people in the actions they have taken. It is our strong belief that we must turn away from the attitudes and practices that have brought such harm to the natural world and to our relationships with creation. We continue to demonstrate respect for all nations by defending them. It is clear that the construction of the St Lawrence–FDR Power Project has affected the natural world, including the people.

In this spirit and with this commitment, we take up our responsibility to demand respect for the environmental philosophy of the Haudenosaunee. The foundation of our environmental philosophy lays out a path to maintaining and restoring relations between all nations and people. When relations with all nations are restored, we people regain our balance and harmony with the natural world and are better able to fulfil our responsibilities. This chapter concludes with a set of recommendations that we believe could serve as the basis for restoring the natural world that has been disrupted by the damming of the Kaniatarowanenne.

The Kahniakehaka and the NYPA come from two very different cultures, and we do not expect the NYPA readily to understand our relationship with or attachment to the environment. However, any misunderstanding can be cleared up with the NYPA’s cooperation and with meaningful consultation with the Kahniakehaka, which can be established over time. Each successful consultation can form the basis of an ongoing relationship that is built on trust. As trust continues to be built, it will become inherent, and meaningful negotiations will take place.

In the dialogue that will evolve from this chapter, we invite the NYPA and the relevant governments of the United States to extend their vision into the future and to see things as we do–from a position of love, respect and concern for other people, the land, the water, the animals and fish, the plants and trees and our relatives in the skyworld. We firmly believe that it is possible to coexist peacefully and with justice for all. By striving to achieve kanikonri:io (the good mind) and by acting on the principles of the Rotinoshonni environmental philosophy, it is possible to transcend history and restore balance and harmony in our world. We pray that NYPA members will take up their responsibility as human beings, so that we can welcome them as brothers and sisters sharing the path of righteousness and reason into the future.

Issues of Concern to the Natural World

We offer these words with respect for the inherent wisdom of the Ohen:ton Karihwatehkwen, both as a teaching tool and as a way of understanding the proper relations among the nations in the natural world. In effect, these words are a reading of the Ohen:ton Karihwatehkwen for the time and place we live in today. Because of the substance of the issues we face as a community, these words will go beyond a thanksgiving to include a lament for the injuries that have been done to the nations and to our relations with them.

The people

Today we have gathered and we see that the cycle of life continues. We have been given the duty to live in balance and harmony with each other and all living things. So now, we bring our minds together as one as we give greetings and thanks to each other as people.

The Creator has given us the duty of maintaining peaceable relations between the other nations of the natural world and ourselves. People are not superior to the natural world; we are interrelated with the nations and celebrate their diversity, which sustains balance and harmony. Our primary responsibility is to listen to the other nations and to share our interpretations of their messages with our fellow human beings. People have a concomitant responsibility to strive for and preserve the well-being of other nations to enable them to carry out their duties. We are able to communicate with other nations through the land- and water-based activities that we carry out and by continuously acknowledging the gifts provided by these relationships through our language, ceremonies, dances, songs and medicine societies.

Our responsibility as human beings in creation is to strive for balance and to live in harmony with each other and with all living things. The duties we have as human beings and the balance and harmony we seek as an ideal are reflected in our relationship to the Kaniatarowanenneh. When we are fulfilling our duties, we enjoy the fruits of balance and harmony in the health, happiness and prosperity of our people. When we neglect or are prevented from fulfilling our duties, we suffer the consequences in many different ways.

Our people maintained balance and harmony in our natural environment since time immemorial. The river also fulfilled its responsibility to the other nations by sustaining them with water, cleansing the land, and providing spawning grounds, breeding sanctuaries, staging areas, feeding grounds and wintering areas, migration paths and corridors, and habitat for plants, fish, birds, mammals and other creatures. Previously, the river had provided the Kahniakehaka with food to eat or barter for other goods, a means of transportation, places for recreation for meditation, a source of power to heal and physical and spiritual sustenance. The creation of the Project interrupted the Kaniatarowanenne’s natural flow. Our peace was disrupted and our relationship with the river forcibly severed in very real ways by the actions of the newcomers.

People in Akwesasne were never consulted; nor were they ever offered substantial compensation for their lost property. Furthermore, since the 1820s, the ownership of traditional territory for Akwesasne has been an issue between the US federal government and New York State. The NYPA was well informed of the land claims, but no consideration was given to the people of Akwesasne to discuss this issue. Mistrust and anger resulted.

Cultural and dietary changes

The Project created a dramatic transformation in the community. From a traditional society rooted in the culture and values of the Rotinoshonni, we were forced into the mainstream economy and found ourselves pressured by the values of that competitive, materialistic culture. Our traditional economy was disrupted as a result of not being able to rely upon farming, fishing, trapping, hunting and gathering as a means of living. Lost to our people were the opportunities to engage in important traditional cultural practices. A large number of our men worked on the Project as construction specialists for the short term. When it altered the land and river, these men were not able to return to their traditional land-and water-based practices. Consequently, they maintained non-traditional jobs, which eventually led them to leave the community. Family life suffered. Aside from the deep social disruption this caused, our community began to suffer culturally from the effects of having the core of our traditional political and social system, the family, ripped apart, as well as having English supplant Kahniakeha, the Mohawk language. We view the building of the Project as a major disruption of our social and cultural continuity.

With the disappearance of certain species of freshwater fish–the American eel, for example–our ability to communicate with that particular fish has diminished, hence our language has suffered. The impact is also reflected in the loss of protein in our diets, which has resulted in higher incidence of diabetes. (This was confirmed by a health study conducted by physicians from the Mount Sinai School of Medicine, Selikoff 1980.)

The Project has endangered our previous peaceful coexistence–the entire network of responsibility and interdependency among all these nations has been undermined. Interdependence and self-sufficiency are intricately linked; once one is broken the other is affected as well. Our strength as a people has been threatened by the Project and our self-sufficiency has been undermined. The Project and the dangers it brought physically prevented the people from achieving the three main cultural requirements for human fulfilment in our tradition: sken:nen, kahsahstenhsera tanon kanikonri:io (peace, power and righteousness).

The Earth

We are all thankful to our Mother, the Earth, for she gives us all that we need for life. She supports our feet as we walk about upon her. It gives us joy that she continues to care for us as she has from the beginning of time. To our Mother, we send greetings and thanks.

When the Creator gave the Kahniakehaka the Ohen:ton Karihwatehkwen, he instructed the people to give thanks and greetings for all of creation. Each day we are to give recognition to the importance of the earth as our mother and to give thanks for all her gifts. Without fail since time immemorial, Mother Earth has provided us with food and the essentials necessary for life. As Kahniakehaka we know that our survival depends upon Mother Earth fulfilling her responsibilities. When damage is done to the earth, such as that caused by the Project, it is our responsibility to correct that damaging force and to restore balance to our relationships with the earth. As the sustainer of life, the earth provides for all the nations and the people. As part of our responsibility, we must work hard to care for, protect and repair any damages that occur to Mother Earth. This is of primary importance in fulfilling our duties as Kahniakehaka.

Through our culture, in the form of stories and myths, spiritual beliefs, ceremonial activities and the practices of sharing and providing mutual aid, we have defined appropriate and necessary modes of behaviour in harvesting the gifts from the earth. Our culture also affirms and reinforces our relationship to the earth and other nations. These behaviours, which are land-based practices and activities, have evolved over time to reflect the changes to the land as well as the necessity to adapt to our changing world to sustain our relationship with the earth. Our culture is built on learning, which ultimately includes sharing of traditional knowledge generation to generation. It is the intergenerational teaching and learning about the importance of the land that secure a future for the Kahniakehaka.

The transference of naturalized knowledge systems involves activities that provide a foundation for our social and cultural values and beliefs. The family is the basis of the social organization, and in turn fishing, hunting, trapping, gathering, gardening and farming reinforce these kinship relations. These activities are part of a dynamic process that involves observational, experiential, theoretical and interactive learning that is acquired over a lifetime. It is through our continued relations with all the nations of the natural world that we will derive sustenance. Once we gain this nourishment from our relationships, we are able to share the nourishment and knowledge of everyday activities that gives strength to the individual, the family, the community, the nation, and thus the Rotinoshonni. The Kahniakehaka who settled in Akwesasne learned through generations of family and friends what the maintenance of a positive and healthy relationship with this land entailed. The relationship was such that the people knew when and how the earth would provide physical, mental, spiritual and emotional sustenance. What we had learned to do was to listen to the land and observe the signs that tell us that the time was right for planting and harvesting. We became part of the land and therefore known as Akwesasronon (People of Akwesasne).

Akwesasne is part of Kahniake, the traditional Kahniakehaka territory, which our people have inhabited since time immemorial. Kahniakehaka made a sacred wampum belt known as the Ohkwaho Kaionwi ne Akwesasne, or the Akwesasne Wolf Belt.

The Akwesasne Wolf Belt [says that] The Land and the People are One. Akwesasronon have a very special relationship with the Land and Territory that they call home. Notice of their ownership is conveyed through their Ohkwaho Kaionwi ne Akwesasne . . . [Akwesasne Wolf Belt]. It records the Community Charter created by the Mohawks who formed the Akwesasne Community, within the Traditional Kahniakehaka Territory at Akwesasne. (Salli Benedict, Akwesasronon, 1999)

Our attachment to the land is sealed in the fact that generations of our ancestors are buried throughout the territory.

Burial sites are not only found in cemeteries. When I had a miscarriage and we lost our first child, we returned her to the embrace of her earth mother, here in Akwesasne. Only my husband and I know the exact location. It is not for anyone else to know. What I will tell my other children is that their sister is buried here on this land and they must always be respectful of our earth mother and her children. This respect is something very old. It goes all the way back to the creation of our people. When [our child] was placed in the earth, all of this land was considered sacred. Not only does our earth mother embrace the bodies of our human relatives, both past and present, but also she holds the coming faces of the future. All the land is a burial site for someone–a plant, an animal, a bird, and a child. It is for this reason that we must be very careful and respectful of all the earth that makes up our territory. (Akwesasne mother, 1996)

Today this issue of the remains of our dead and their belongings is still unresolved; other people hold many of our ‘artefacts’, cultural properties and other material pieces of our heritage.

The land is knowledge

In addition to what our teachings communicate to us, we have intimate knowledge of the land. This relationship developed between the people and the land is derived from naturalized knowledge systems, which have been learned. When man-made structures and developments such as the Project do not consider the knowledge acquired over lifetimes and through intergenerational teaching, artificial barriers are erected which impede the fulfilment of the natural world’s essential responsibilities and duties.

The inability to carry out the Creator’s instructions results in subtle but profound effects on the people. For most of us, these effects are only noticed when relationships cannot provide the gifts that we take for granted, such as the good, clean earth that nurtures us and supports all life. As a resident of Akwesasne stated: ‘We lost more than land when the Seaway and Power Project came through Akwesasne’ (Akwesasne Elder, 1990).

The plants and trees

The plants, trees, fruits and medicines are honoured for their part in this world. They offer nourishment for the well-being of all creation as well as a strong spiritual foundation. The People were instructed to respect the values of the elements contained in the plants, trees, fruits and medicines for their spiritual well-being and their role in creation, and for that we give thanks.

These forms of life are precious gifts from the Creator and are essential to our physical and spiritual survival. It is important to consider the diversity and responsibility of each one of these gifts in the maintenance of harmonious coexistence of all the nations.

All plants, including trees, have energy and power that can be prepared as medicines to help people maintain their well-being. It was common for families to go out and pick certain plants to treat their ailments. ‘When I was about fifteen years old, was the first time I went to see a “doctor” when I was sick. All the time before that my grandmother would go outside and come back with plants and fix a medicine for me. Everything we needed was outside’ (Akwesasne Elder, 1999). To this day the well-being of many families is dependent on the knowledge of healing plants. Gathering plants for healing is very common throughout Kahniake, including on lands that the NYPA claims as part of the Project.

Other small plants and grasses, which grow throughout the seasons and in various habitats, are special gifts in themselves. They are valuable to us because they filter toxins out of the air, thus providing clean air for the natural world. Some grasses, such as sweetgrass, can be found along rivers and in wetlands and other habitats that have moist soil. Sweetgrass and black-ash splints are used to make baskets. Previously, basket-making was one way the people within Akwesasne would barter for food and other necessities of life. An Elder remembers people bringing in baskets to sell at his grandfather’s store and how important they were to the families’ survival.

They made baskets, pounded logs, splints, and pack baskets mostly. Wasn’t fancy. Just plain pack baskets. Sold them to stores, lumber camps, hunters brought them and used them. Made them by [the] dozen. Nothing for them to work all winter. No jobs. Make them all winter and sell them in summertime. That was their income. No jobs anywhere. (Akwesasne Elder, 1999)

Today basket-making continues as a means of economy and expressing artistic talent. Exhibitions of contemporary Native artists continue to display baskets alongside paintings, sculpture, photography and other expressive media. Since the construction of the Project there are very few areas left where sweetgrass grows in Kahniake. The NYPA must negotiate with the Kahniakehaka to protect those areas that remain and sustain and restore them to their natural ecosystems. There are many trees that we honour for their gifts, such as the maple for syrup, hickory for lacrosse sticks and axe handles, and black-ash for splints. Countless hardwood trees are used as firewood to heat homes. Ashes from these trees are considered medicine and are important in cooking traditional foods. The trees are acknowledged for the protection from the wind and hot sun that they provide to the nations, including the people and small plants.

The Project continues to harm plants and trees by changing water levels and ice flows, which erodes islands and affects wetlands; promoting poor land-use practices such as spraying pesticides and herbicides; creating tourist areas and buildings; and replacing indigenous plants and trees with foreign horticultural species. The dam has created a physical barrier separating the people from the plants and trees they depend on for survival. The effects on trees and plants have caused alterations in their relations with the other elements of the natural world, including the people. Following the damage to the plants and trees, we have experienced spiritual disruption, interference in economic trade, loss of the Mohawk language, loss of habitat for plants and disruptions to intergenerational teaching.

The waters

We are thankful to the Waters of the World for quenching our thirst and providing us with strength. Water is life. We know its power in many forms: waterfalls and rain, mists and streams, rivers and oceans. With one mind, we send greetings and thanks to the Spirit of Water.

The responsibilities of the waters are to provide sustenance to all beings, to quench our thirst and to give us strength. Consequently, the waters are the bloodlines of our Mother Earth; they connect, nourish, cleanse and purify all nations. Tsi Kiontonhwentsison (the Creation Story) describes the important relationship that we have with the waters. It teaches about the water world existing prior to the creation of the earth. Water animals and waterfowl assisted Sky Woman’s landing on the giant sea turtle’s back, and thus began the creation of the earth.

The waters have provided spiritual, ceremonial, social and functional gifts to the nations, including the people. Water’s energy and power for disciplining and educating children is reflected in stories and legends that speak about water being used to encourage more positive behaviour. They also show our spiritual dependence on the powerful flow of the river and clean water. It is important for the water to be clean, but spiritual, ceremonial and functional uses also require the unrestricted, moving flow of the current.

I remember as a young boy, swimming under the water with a real fast current, really listening to the water. It had a language. You’d see the weeds and the different colour rocks as you’re going underwater. And it speaks to you of being free. Our philosophy talks about being free, as an Indian people. (Akwesasne Elder, 1988)

When the waters were healthy, it was common to harvest fish from this clean environment, which was evident from the clarity of the waters.

I used to go fishing with my father; I’d drink water right out of the river. The river was clean then. It was bluish blue, blue and clean colour. You could see, on a calm day, 20–50 feet deep. River bottom, you see fish at the bottom, fish that eat at the bottom. . . . We use to go spearing. It was a lot of fun. . . . We caught fish we could eat. (Akwesasne Elder, 1994)

Uses of the waters

In addition to providing gifts of fish for sustenance, the waters provided transportation for the Kahniakehaka throughout the traditional territory. Islands west of the present day St Lawrence–FDR Power Project were reached by boat during the spring and summer months. During winter months people travelled over ice roads on foot or by horse and sleigh. Elders who were familiar with the river and its currents before the Project knew the safest routes to cross the ice. Day trips to socialize with family and friends; to trap, hunt, fish and gather; and to go to the nearby towns to trade goods for food and other necessities were well planned, and access to these areas was never restricted.

When the Project was constructed and the river bed was dredged, it altered the flow of Kaniatarowanenne. As the water level was regulated, the strength and thickness of the ice became unpredictable. While Kahniakehaka were relearning the river, people drowned.

Once the Project was constructed, it severely restricted access to the territory west of the dam. Kahniakehaka say that the dam is also a barrier to the fishermen, hunters, gatherers and other Kahniakehaka. This has caused a serious disruption to our people and has diminished our knowledge and intimacy with the traditional territory. The dam and regulation of the water level prevent the natural cleansing of the river bed and adjacent lands, including the tributaries.

When I moved here in the spring the ice would break up and hit the shore and the land. The ice jams cleaned the bottom of the river. It was so powerful and made such a thunderous noise you could hear it coming. It would take several weeks to go through. You don’t see that anymore. The ice jams used to break the shorelines away, but it cleaned everything, it was nature’s way of cleaning. (Akwesasne Elder, 1995)

The effects of the Project went far beyond restriction of access to traditional territory. The dam also interfered with bartering for the necessities of life; disrupted family relations; changed relations with the animals and other nations; rendered water unfit for animals, plants and people; and threatened the transference of intergenerational learning. Our minds and souls are linked intricately to the waters and their ability to carry out their responsibilities and duties.

There was a whole culture of a river. You could talk about the culture of the Cajuns, if you went to Louisiana. Well, among our Mohawks there was a river culture, there was a river language, there were feelings, there were songs, there were stories, and the Seaway just amputated that. (Akwesasne Elder, 1988)

The animals and fish

We gather our Minds together to send greetings and thanks to all the Animal Life in the World. They have many things to teach us as People. We see them near our homes in the deep forests. They provide us with many essentials. When we are hungry, they become our food. They provide us with furs for warmth and tools for protection and survival. Their stories teach us about life, and for that, we are thankful.

We turn our minds to all the Fish in the Water. They were instructed to cleanse and purify the Water. They also give themselves to us as food to nourish us. We are grateful that we can still find pure Water in this World. We turn to the Fish and send our greetings and thanks to them.

The animals and fish are acknowledged and given thanks for their gifts to all the nations, and in their continued existence they are fulfilling their roles and responsibilities as instructed in the Ohen:ton Karihwatehkwen. We acknowledge them and their gifts in our language, ceremonies and songs. In the Tsi Kiontonhwentsison a time existed when only the water world was present. It was the water animals and waterfowl that assisted Sky Woman in creating the earth. It was the water animals that made several attempts to grasp dirt from the bottom of the water world, so that Sky Woman could place it on the turtle’s back to create the earth. They were the first inhabitants of the earth and were critical in preparing for the coming of human beings.

In many ways we are very much dependent on the life of animals. From a practical aspect we are dependent upon them for our food, clothing, shelter and medicines. They have taught us about medicine. We have learned how to hunt, store food and survive from them. We also rely on them for our emotional and spiritual strength. In many ways, animals remind us of our humanity. They teach us to share, to take care of our children, to protect our territory, to look out for others and to love our families. Our kinship with the natural world is a very real thing. Animals are relatives, and as such they deserve to be treated with respect.

The clan structure that binds our families, communities and nations together is based on the animals, fish and birds from the eastern forest. The animal families have certain distinct characteristics, and we have learned many things from observing their behaviour. The ronathahion:ni (wolves) have taught us how to be loyal, how to work together and how to love and take care of our children and community. The rotiskare:wake (bears) taught us how to live in the forests by showing us which species of plants, berries and roots are good to eat and which are good for medicine. The rotiniahton (turtles) have taught us how to be tough and resilient. The deer, snipe, eel and others have taught us how to live together peacefully as a community.

The construction and ongoing operation of the Project have affected the animals, birds and fish we depend upon, in many ways. If we do not have those other nations in the natural world, critical relationships in Kahniakehaka culture are endangered. Actual contact, observation and reflection are essential parts of the dynamic of how the Kahniakehaka culture is learned. The culture, therefore, is dependent on our ability to interact with healthy populations of animals, birds and fish.

Numerous and various fish habitats have been altered or destroyed by the Project due to altered water flows, changing water chemistry, erosion, loss of wetlands and pollution. The long-term effects on the fish, including the eel, have been noticed by the Elders of Akwesasne. People have witnessed numerous fish and eel sliced or cut up since the Seaway was completed. The Elders believe it is the passage through the turbines of the dam that is the source of these injuries to the fish and eel. Approximately 25 per cent of the eels do not pass through the turbines intact. The Elders are concerned that the adult eel and fish are being destroyed, resulting in fewer reproductive-age fish to replenish the population. The lack of an adequate fish passage at the Project (both upstream and downstream) has been detrimental to the fish and eel nations. This is unacceptable to the Elders.

The disrupted relationship with the turtle is a good example of how threatened our culture is because of the Seaway. Kahniakehaka have many stories and legends that describe the behaviour and characteristics of the turtle. We know that turtle is very old, strong, and resilient and we are reminded of his role every time a turtle rattle is used in our ceremonies. The earth was created on the back of a giant turtle, so any harm to the turtle reflects harm done to the earth. Profound changes have occurred in the turtle’s habitat, consequently having dramatic effects on the turtle. The a’nowara (snapping turtle) maintains residency in the same area throughout its life. In several areas of Akwesasne, the turtle’s habitat is very highly contaminated due to PCBs. For the Kahniakehaka, contamination of the snapping turtle is a warning to all the nations, including the people, that toxins are quickly poisoning our relations with the animals, and there is more to come. It is our responsibility to let other human beings know when the animals are being injured so that we may take appropriate action to regain the coexistence that we have been instructed to strive for.

The skyworld

The Creator has given the responsibility to the Grandfather Thunderers to put fresh water into the rivers, lakes and springs to quench the thirst of life. Our Eldest Brother the Sun has the responsibility to shine the light so we may see and radiates warmth that all life may grow. Our Grandmother the Moon has been instructed to take charge of the birth of all things and [the Creator] made her the leader of all female life. All babies are born by her orchestration. Our Grandmother the Moon is in charge of the waters of the world and is responsible for the tides. The Stars provide direction in finding our way about the earth and let us know when ceremonies take place for continued thanksgiving for the cycles of life. Our Creator made all life with nothing lacking. As humans our responsibility is to not waste any life and be grateful and give thanks every day.

We have been warned of the implication of not upholding our responsibilities, which will result in effects to all nations including the people. The prophecies of the Rotinonshonni were delivered to the people generations ago. Today, Rotinoshonni Elders are concerned about the natural world and people because of the unfolding of the events that were prophesied. Community members have noted many of these events.

As instructed in the Ohen:ton Karihwatehkwen, we must give greetings and acknowledge the natural world we live in, and this should be done on a daily basis. If the other nations are not acknowledged and shown respect, they will leave this earth and travel back to the Creator’s world. We have seen the disappearances of many four-legged animals, birds, plants, trees and their habitats as a result of the Project. We can not simply focus our attention on protecting and restoring individual species but must also focus on protecting and restoring sacred spaces that all nations depend on for survival. The lands claimed by the NYPA as within the Project boundaries meet Kahniakehaka definitions of sacred spaces.

For the Kahniakehaka, living with the impacts of the Project has created many obstacles to maintaining peaceful and healthy relations with creation and spiritual beings. As we pray in our traditional and customary ways, our communications with the Creator may not be clear, for even relations with the Skyworld have been altered to some degree. The knowledge of our people and the other nations has been supported by scientific studies that tell us the Skyworld beings have had to work harder to fulfil their responsibilities.

We have continued, however, to carry out our responsibilities of acknowledgement for all nations and the Skyworld, as instructed.

Prophesies instruct us

As we were told in our prophesies, the natural world has begun to unravel, and the Project has been a ruinous force. Our prophesies were told to us because we needed to make conscious decisions about our future, and the future of generations yet to come. Kahniakehaka firmly believe that, in cooperation with the NYPA, we must reflect upon the past and take action not to repeat our mistakes–collectively think about how to protect and restore the natural world to build healthy and sustainable relationships.

The Path of Righteousness and Reason

Sken:nen, Kanikonri:io tanon Kahsahstenhsera

Since the beginning of time, our Creator has told our people to strive for peace: as individuals, communities and nations, we must constantly strive to talk, work and live in peace and to be at peace. Also, we must strive for peace with the nations of the natural world. Sken:nen (peace) is more than just the absence of conflict or war; it has spiritual, social and political foundations. Sken:nen is the active striving of humans for the purpose of establishing universal justice and is the product of a unified people on the path of righteousness and reason. That means the ability to enact the principles of peace through education, public opinion and political unity. It is the product of a spiritually conscious society using its rational abilities. When we work for sken:nen, we develop a kanikonri:io (good mind), or a good way of thinking. Kanikonri:io means the achievement of a shared sense and mentality of the people using their purest and most unselfish minds. It occurs when people put their minds and emotions in harmony with the flow of the universe and the intentions of the Creator. The principle of this righteousness demands that all thoughts of prejudice, privilege or superiority be swept away and that recognition be given to the reality that creation is intended for the benefit of all beings equally. Reason is seen as the skill that humans must be encouraged to acquire so that the objectives of a good mind may be attained and other nation’s rights are not abused. When we work for sken:nen and kanikonri:io, we develop kahsahstenhsera. Strength flows from the power of the good mind to use rational thinking and persuasion to channel the inherent good will of humans to work toward peace, a good mind and unity to prevent the abuse of human beings and Mother Earth.

Using the Kahniakehaka environmental philosophy to think about traditional cultural property and environmental issues in our territory, we are compelled to refocus on restoration. The answers to our problems exist and have existed in the teachings given to us by the Creator. Collectively, all we need to do is to focus our thinking on these teachings and bring our actions in line with the basic teachings that have been part of our culture since time immemorial. The basic problem we face is that we human beings are unable to fulfil our responsibilities to creation properly because of the Project’s impact on our culture.

Most importantly, because of the damage to our communities and traditional lifestyles and economies, which resulted in our inability to participate in traditional cultural practices and thus fulfil our duties, our language, our existence as Kahniakehaka, and the existence of other nations of the natural world have been endangered.

We offer the Kahniakehaka environmental and political philosophy to the NYPA as a foundation to the creation of a just and harmonious future relationship with our people. The environmental philosophy as instructed by the Ohen:ton Karihwatehkwen and the political philosophy as governed by the Kahswenhtha would establish a relationship based upon peace, power and righteousness and would restore harmony, strength and balance to our natural world and to the Kaniatarowanenne. Based on Kahniakehaka philosophy we have made recommendations to the NYPA.

We have a great opportunity to learn from the past, reorient our relations, and build a relationship based on mutual respect and partnership in the sharing of responsibility in this land and natural world. To achieve this, we must transcend our individualistic motivations and move away from thinking in material terms. It is possible to use the resources of the Kaniatarowanenne in a beneficial and responsible way. It simply means thinking of accountability in a different way. Accountability should mean that we uphold our responsibilities and strive to achieve balance not only of the ‘books’ but in much broader terms. We call on the NYPA to reconsider its commitment and sense of responsibility and to adopt the approach of a triple bottom line: sken:nen, kanikonri:io tanon kahsahstenhsera. In a very real sense, we are asking the NYPA to join us as we reflect, and then to proceed as partners with us in the restoration of balance and harmony in the world that we now share.

Notes

This chapter was made possible because of the work undertaken by the Akwesasne Task Force on the Environment, including the staff, Elders, volunteers, Community and Academic Advisory Committees and many others who assisted. Mary Arquette and Maxine Cole have served as compilers and editors of this text. The chapter is a condensed version of the Cultural Resource Study undertaken by the ATFE to identify the traditional cultural properties of the Mohawks of Akwesasne.

1. All quotations not from a cited source are from materials shared by community members with the AFTE.

References

Akwesasne (1997) ‘Kaniatarowanen:ne: one river, many nations’, public scoping hearing held 9 September 1997, Akwesasne Mohawk Nation (64 Mohawk presentations), Akwesasne Mohawk Nation: ATFE.

Akwesasne Task Force on the Environment (1997) ‘Superfund clean-up at Akwesasne: a case study in environmental injustice’, International Journal of Contemporary Sociology, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 267–90.

——— (2001) ‘Cultural resources study’, Akwesasne Mohawk Nation: ATFE.

Bilharz, J. (1998) The Allegany Senecas and Kinzua Dam: Forced Relocation Through Two Generations, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Gefell, A. (1988) ‘River recollections: portraits of life along the St Lawrence river in the 20th century’, Northeast Indian Quarterly, Fall 1988, pp. 4–15.

Hauptman, L. (1986) The Iroquois Struggle for Survival, Syracuse: Syracuse University Press.

International St Lawrence River Board of Control (1982) ‘A report to the International Joint Commission on concerns of the St Regis Band regarding impacts from the St Lawrence Seaway and Power Development’, unpublished report.

Parker, P. and T. King (1988) ‘Guidelines for evaluating and documenting traditional cultural properties’, National Register Bulletin 38, Washington, DC: National Park Service.

Patch, S. and W. Busch (1984) The St Lawrence River–Past and Present, Cortland, NY: US Fish and Wildlife Service.

Recht, M. (1995) ‘The role of fishing in the Iroquois economy, 1600–1792’, New York History 16, pp. 5–14.

Selikoff, I. (1980) ‘Effects of environmental contaminants on the health of the people of the St Regis Indian Reserve’, New York City: Mt. Sinai School of Medicine.

Tarbell, A. and M. Arquette (2000) ‘Akwesasne: a Native American community’s resistance to cultural and environmental harm’, in R. Hofrichter (ed.), Reclaiming the Environmental Debate: The Politics of Health in a Toxic Culture, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

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