Document(s) 11 of 14

Water and poverty

Shortages of water and poverty are frequently linked. When nature does not provide easily accessible water, communities do not thrive and their development can be limited. When people have access to abundant water, they can spend their financial resources on other necessities. However, supplying water to communities has become expensive and water companies of Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) seldom give priority to poor neighbourhoods.

City slums are often located in marginal areas, where installation of water systems presents engineering problems. For example, several such areas are on steep slopes at a higher elevation than the storage reservoirs. Water must be pumped up to them, resulting in additional cost. Another common location for poor areas of the cities is on flood plains, where installation of drainage systems and water mains is difficult and costly. As a result, 40 million people in LAC cities lack water and most of them live in the poorest sections of the cities.

Water problems in more affluent parts of the cities may also affect the urban poor, directly or indirectly. In Santa Marta and Recife, for example, shortages of water in the hotels have reduced the number of tourists staying in the city and at nearby resorts. The thousands of people who depend on tourism for their livelihood, many among the poor sectors of the population, are seriously affected by this situation.

Water, health, and quality of life

Whether shortages are a result of lack of service in the area or loss of pressure in the whole system when volumes are insufficient, the urban poor are usually the first to suffer the effects. Poor hygiene, resulting from inadequate education, exacerbates the problems of people living in slum areas. Scarce water is not always used in the most efficient manner leaving poor urban neighbourhoods defenseless against infectious diseases, such as hepatitis and cholera, and putting additional strain on poorly funded and overextended health systems.

Unregulated dumping of garbage can lead to direct contamination of surface water of indirect contamination of groundwater.

The recent cholera epidemics, which started in Peru, later spread to most Latin American countries. Peru reported 200 000 cases of cholera and many neighbouring countries are in a similar situation. Cholera is widespread in the Amazon region and outbreaks occur as far north as Mexico and as far south as Argentina. The only cities where the disease did not establish a foothold are those with the largest sewage and water-supply systems, e.g., Montevideo. The possibility of fighting an aggressive disease like cholera, as well as other waterborne diseases like amoebiasis, diarrhea, typhus, and hepatitis, is closely related to the condition of the water systems in the cities.

Water is not only a defence against sickness, it is also a basic element in the quality of life. In communities not served by municipal systems, considerable effort is required to bring water to the homes: carrying heavy containers from trucks, wells, or streams, waiting in line, walking the distance to the source, and using precious fuel to boil the water. Many hours are spent by members of the household in this daily chore. Children miss school, women and men cannot take care of their infants properly, and people are frequently late for work because getting water is so difficult. Obtaining water at home represents a significant leap forward toward a better life.

Scarcity of water

Water problems of cities in this increasingly urbanized world are not always due to shortage of water at a regional level. Large cities consume relatively large volumes of water. Buenos Aires, Mexico City, and São Paulo, the three largest cities of the LAC region, consume 50–80 m³/second but this is a very small volume when compared with

the total resources of the region. Even with the growth expected during the next decade, this volume will not exceed 100 m³/second in each city. However, the flow of water in the major rivers of Latin America is hundreds or even thousands times greater. The Amazon’s output into the Atlantic Ocean is about 150 000 m³/second, i.e., 2 000 times the water consumption of the largest city on the continent, the Paraná carries 20 000 m³/second into the Río de la Plata, and the volume of many other rivers is over 1 000 m³/second at their outlets, e.g., the Magdalena, Orinoco, San Francisco, Uruguay, and Usumacinta rivers.

This apparent abundance of water does not reflect the actual situation. Significant portions of the basins of these rivers lie in areas of high rainfall. Many other rivers contain much less water. Second, the figures quoted above reflect the flow at the mouths of those rivers. In their upper stretches or in their tributaries, the flow is much smaller in relation to the size of the upstream basin and the local rainfall. Third, few large cities are located at the mouth or in the lower reaches of the large rivers or their tributaries where the flow is at a maximum. Some cities, such as São Paulo, Brasília, Guatemala City, and Bogotá, are close to divides; water there is limited and frequently insufficient to meet the growing needs of their metropolitan populations.

Groundwater is abundant and volumes are several-fold larger than surface water resources (perhaps between one and two orders of magnitude larger). However, the critical measure of these sources is not their volumes, but their renewability. When groundwater sources are tapped beyond their capacity for renewal, water levels drop, pumping costs increase, and sooner or later the resource is depleted.

Considering only renewal volumes of aquifers, the available water is about the same order of magnitude as surface resources or even less. In addition, groundwater availability and urban distribution do not coincide. There. are large aquifers in sparsely populated areas or where there is plenty of surface water and large urban areas with little groundwater in their proximity.

The demand side of the equation

The water problem has two sides: supply and demand. Many of the supply problems in LAC cities would be solved, or would be less acute, if more sustainable policies and strategies were implemented. Consumption is much greater than required to simply provide water for urban activities and dwellings. Wastage takes place at all levels in the water systems: leakage from the pipelines, wasteful attitudes encouraged by lack of metering or inadequate pricing policies, inappropriate water-appliances, etc.

To improve the situation, therefore, both sides of the problem must be attacked: increase supply and reduce demand. In both areas, improved management strategies are needed.

Sustainability and equity

Management strategies must weigh the required investments against returns within the context of sustainability and equity. For every one of the large metropolitan areas of the continent, several possible sustainable and equitable water-supply options are possible. Once these factors are assured, the main criteria for choosing among the various alternatives can be the actual costs of the proposed systems.

Urban water systems should not affect the viability of the water resources themselves, as has been the case where overuse has resulted in a drop in water level, salinization, or contamination. Second, sustain ability includes the protection of other natural resources in the region, Le., fluvial or lacustrine ecosystems.

In addition to ecological sustainability, water systems must be socially sustainable. The establishment of any water system has socioeconomic implications, not only from the perspective of satisfying the needs of the whole population in an equitable way, but also in other ways. Water services create employment, they can promote some types of industries, and they can even be an effective element to support urban planning, e.g., the availability of water will stimulate the development of some neighbourhoods at the expense of others.

Unsustainable models in the LAC region

The solutions discussed above represent only one aspect of the problem, however, and not even the most important one. The main reason for the lack of sustainability of the water systems has less to do with the water policies or strategies themselves, than with the development models that have flourished in the LAC region. When their size and rate of growth are considered, it is clear that the Latin American megacities are not sustainable.

One cannot help wondering what is going to become of Mexico City and its 20 million people. Water is becoming insufficient; huge sums of money and energy are being spent to produce larger and larger volumes of water, pumping up millions of cubic metres every day, but the city and surrounding urban centres are still growing. The development model for the country must be reviewed, the growth must be curtailed, and the country’s economy and administration must be decentralized. If these steps are taken in an intelligent manner, there is a real possibility that the water problem will disappear on its own or at least be significantly reduced.

The development model for Brazil is also clearly unsustainable. Hydrologically, São Paulo is in the wrong location and, with further growth of the city, the suitability of the site will not improve. A new model promoting the relocation of commercial and industrial activities, emphasizing local control and decentralization, may be the only real long-term solution to many of the city’s problems, including its water supply. The same argument could be applied to almost any other large Latin American city. Bogotá, Buenos Aires, Caracas, Lima, Montevideo, San José, and Santiago have similar problems at different degrees of magnitude (Olivera 1991; Pírez 1991; Santana 1991).

Conclusions

The water supply and environmental problems of large cities result from a complex array of circumstances that include not only the availability of water resources and the characteristics and vulnerability of the environment, but also demographic, legal, administrative, political, and behaviour issues. Although the problems may seem to be solved when water is made available, this is often not the case.

In terms of providing a sustainable water supply to a city, the first element to consider is the availability of safe surface water, preferably at the same altitude or higher than the

city. If a source is below the elevation of the city (e.g., Mexico City), costs may be appreciably increased. Bringing water from a higher level is less costly (e.g., Lima), but distance is also a factor in estimating cost. The cost of bringing water from a remote site at a lower altitude may be prohibitive.

When a large, regularly flowing river is close by, a water system requires only intake, adequate treatment, storage, and distribution structures. However, if flow in adjacent streams or rivers is irregular, upstream dams or reservoirs may be needed to stabilize the flow and store water for dry periods. These structures increase the cost of water.

Water quality also varies. It may contain large concentrations of suspended sediments (clays, silts, and sand), organic matter or organisms, or various contaminants. The cost of treating such water to make it potable may be high.

Rate of growth of the city must also be considered. A city may outgrow its original water sources. Larger reservoirs, located further away, and longer, more complex conduction systems may be necessary, multiplying costs. As illustrated earlier, increasing populations are also usually associated with increasing pollution of water sources and the need for more intensive treatment.

Demand constitutes one of the key variables in any water supply scheme. Reducing demand can provide a short- or medium-term solution to water scarcity and help define long-term strategies for the cities of the LAC region. Demand can be regulated through adequate pricing policies and the use of water-saving devices, for example. If wastage can be significantly reduced, the need for new water resources (and consequently for new investment) can be substantially lowered.

Cost comparison of surface and groundwater resources

Surface water and groundwater alternatives require different approaches, from both the economic and systematic points of view. Comparison of the costs of these options may shed light on what strategies will be most suitable for the specific conditions in the urban region under consideration.

In general, water supply costs are of two types: initial investment or capital costs and operating or maintenance costs. In addition, water companies have other costs that do not relate directly to construction and operation: administrative costs of various types, including salaries and benefits, interest on loans, rental costs of land and buildings not directly related to water supply and sanitation, taxes, and even transfers of funds to other governmental institutions.

Operating and maintenance expenditures are ongoing and, although they are relatively low in the short term, they can amount to large sums of money when considered on a long-term basis. Operational costs are normally built into the public or water company’s budget and are frequently recovered through water fees or taxes. They are calculated in local currencies and, therefore, are affordable in most LAC countries.

On the other hand, capital investments may be considerable, often measured in tens or hundreds of millions of dollars. In exploiting surface water, investment costs are usually high, e.g., construction of dams, expropriation of land for reservoirs, intake systems, long conduction mains, treatment plants, and storage tanks. A substantial portion of infrastructural investments may be required in “hard currencies,” which are difficult to obtain in the LAC region. New capital investments for developing surface water sources in the LAC can only be made if external credit or grants are obtained. Underground water

provides a possible alternative. In most cases, tapping groundwater requires much smaller initial investment and can be planned with a modular approach.

When an aquifer is close to a city, water conduction can be inexpensive and the cost of water supply affordable. To assess the feasibility of a groundwater-supply project, several other initial costs, such as exploration studies, drilling, well construction, pumps, and water treatment, must be evaluated. However, as a rule, these costs are much smaller than required for large surface-water supply projects and, as a result, groundwater projects may be carried out without borrowing or subsidies. For example, water companies or geological institutes often have unemployed drilling rigs and crews that can be used at a relatively low cost, payable in local currency. Groundwater also usually requires less treatment than surface water, further reducing costs.

Assessment of water resources and development options

Assessing both groundwater and surface-water resources requires a thorough understanding of the natural and artificial systems in the urban region and surrounding areas. This implies a network of observation stations and wells, accurate and updated thematic maps, accurate calculation of water balance, and a capable, well-trained, experienced research team to carry out the collection, processing, and interpretation of the information.

A well-documented assessment of the long-term feasibility of water projects must also be carried out. This should include not only technical and economic elements, but also environmental, social, political, and administrative aspects. Some of the questions that must be answered are:

• Is the project technically feasible? How much will it cost?
• Who is going to pay for it? How will it be financed?
• What will be the overall effect on the environment, short- and long-term?
• Who is going to build, operate, maintain, and administer the proposed systems?
• What effect will the project have on communities living next to reservoirs, structures, and plants?
• Who is most likely to benefit from the project?
• Will new jobs be created or will existing jobs disappear?
• Who’ will receive the water available as a result of the project?
• Will all or most of the water be used in affluent neighbourhoods or will it also
• serve the poor sections of the city? and
• How will the project affect (or be affected by) the legal, administrative, and political systems?

Cities in the LAC region rely on various combinations of groundwater and surface sources for their municipal supply. Many that rely mainly on surface water, supply groundwater to the industries and communities located far from the source. Others depend almost exclusively on groundwater, but could change to surface water. Still others do not have many options. Solutions to water-supply issues are as varied as the cities

themselves and depend on specific local conditions. Only appropriate research will allow an informed decision.

Research efforts must be carried out with the participation of the beneficiaries, because they have first-hand information about field conditions. Their input is necessary not only in defining the research themes, but also at the planning and implementation stages. Community participation has also been shown to increase the chances of success of water projects.

The current situation and future potential

The limitations on water resources, financial constraints, and unabated demographic growth in the LAC region are not going to disappear. In many cases, improvements to water-delivery systems will not be carried out for some time and some sectors of the urban populations will suffer shortages. Over 15% of people in these countries (30 million) do not have access to water in their homes and another 40–50 million are using water of doubtful quality. Some 60% suffer frequent disruption of water service, sometimes depending on systems that only operate a few hours each day.

At the same time, structural adjustments are pushing water prices up, making the service less affordable for poor communities. In affluent areas, the consumption of drinkable water remains disproportionately high because of inappropriate pricing policies and wasteful practices. However, when a choice must be made between various neighbourhoods needing new connections, the more politically influential or affluent people are likely to receive the service or the improvement.

Water supply is a social issue. Throughout its history, the LAC region has been characterized by social inequalities and the current scarcity of water mainly affects those with lesser means to pay for alternative solutions. People living a precarious existence in environmentally hazardous neighbourhoods, with low incomes and large families, are the ones who are most affected by poor decisions about the choice of water supply and sanitation alternatives. Solving the problem of water supply by research, therefore, not only resolves a critical general issue involving the health and well-being of the population at large, but also constitutes a giant step toward providing the most important material need of the poor in cities of the LAC region.

Document(s) 11 of 14