Chapter 2: Serial comma and other devices: International Development Research Centre

International Development Research Centre (IDRC)

français - Español

idrc.ca HOME > Publications > IDRC Books > > >

Topic Explorer

People

ID: 105650

Added: 2006-11-09 15:27

Modified: 2006-11-10 15:58

Refreshed: 2010-03-07 13:21

Click here to get the URL for the RSS format file

Chapter 2: Serial comma and other devices

Document(s) 3 of 10

Period
Ellipsis
Comma
Colon
Semicolon
Exclamation mark
Question mark
Quotation marks
Apostrophe
Solidus
Parentheses and brackets
Hyphens, dashes, and minus signs

Gray areas

This chapter provides examples of the use of punctuation in IDRC publications. It incorporates notes on punctuation marks that are often misused or are poorly understood, and it focuses on the gray areas in punctuation — the places where authorities on grammar accept more than one approach.

IDRC rules

For consistency, IDRC has adopted a "rule" for each of the points where there is choice in use of punctuation — particularly where British and American practice differs. On the whole, IDRC style is closer to the British.

PERIOD

A period, also known as a full stop, indicates the end of a complete thought (a declaration or command) and, at the end of one or more letters, an abbreviated word.

If you do not have to use a period at the end of every complete thought, you must supply an alternative that fulfils the function. This is an absolute — no gray areas here.

In contrast, the use of periods in abbreviations depends on the style of the publication for which a text is being prepared (see "Periods in abbreviations" in Chapter 7). IDRC's style is to minimize periods in abbreviations.

ELLIPSIS

An ellipsis is a series of three dots (...) used to indicate omission of one or more words in a piece of text that has been quoted from another communication.

Ellipsis with punctuation
If the words that have been omitted were originally followed by a punctuation mark other than a dash, include the mark before continuing or closing the quotation.

If the punctuation mark followed the last word quoted directly, then there is no space before the punctuation mark, then a space and the ellipsis follows.

Example: "last word quoted directly, ... no space before the punctuation mark."

If the missing words were between the last word and the punctuation mark, a space follows the last word, then the ellipsis, then the punctuation mark.

Example: "a space follows ..., then the ellipsis, then the punctuation mark."

Do not use ellipsis marks
At the beginning of a quotation, you can show the omission of words by some other means, such as using a lower-case letter to begin the quoted material.

Example: In Mac's words, the sales representative didn't "know his ears from an em dash."

In this example, the content of the sentence (as well as the use of the lower-case "k") lets the reader know that the speaker said more than was actually quoted.

COMMA

The comma helps to group words, phrases, and clauses for clarity. Used correctly, it increases the reader's speed in understanding the relationships that the author intends to establish between words.

Use a comma

After an introductory phrase or clause.
Example
In Singapore, the hawker's stalls are the best bet for a delicious meal. When you visit the city-state, you must try them.
After every item in a series of more than two items.
Example
You can buy fresh juice prepared while you wait from watermelon, pineapple, or star fruit.
The exception to this rule is a series in which other commas are needed for clarity: the items are then separated by semicolons.
Example
Some tropical fruits you will find in the market include durian, which is known as the king of fruits; the rambutan, which is pink and hairy, about the size of a table tennis ball; and the mangosteen, which is red and smooth, with distinct compartments of edible flesh.
Between two complete thoughts joined by "and," "or," "but," or "nor" (the linking or coordinating conjunctions).
Example
The IDRC style manual may take years to be produced, but the work in compiling it will be repaid many times in the production of consistent publications.
To set apart a nonessential (nondefining) clause or phrase within a sentence.
Example
Contact the Singapore Tourist Promotion Board, which has several locations throughout the city, for free publications on the shopping and sights.
To set off adverbs or phrases that break the continuity of thought.
Example
He said, however, that he could not attend. Nevertheless, he wanted to go.
To separate coordinate adjectives modifying the same noun. (If you can substitute "and" for the comma, the adjectives are coordinate and you need a comma.)
Example
An ominous, eerie, luminous cloud settled over the cemetery.

Do not use a comma

To separate the subject from the verb (or predicate), unless there are more than two verbs in a series.
Example
I would be grateful if you could change the text of the editorial, provide examples of some work on the subject, and say that mimosine still remains a problem in chicken feed.
Before or after a phrase or clause that is essential to the meaning of the sentence.
Example
The species Phenacoccus manihoti was first reported in Africa in the early 1970s.
Within dates.
Example
16 January 1983: but Friday, 13 March 1987.
Note: IDRC style is to use the day-month-year sequence always.
Between bulleted items, although they may be used within bulleted items.

COLON

Use a colon

To introduce a quotation or a list.
To show that whatever follows (a complete thought, a phrase, or a word) is an explanation or expansion of what has already been said.
To separate the elements of a mathematical ratio.
Example
The student–teacher ratio was 52 : 1. Note the spaces between the numbers and the colon.
Note: To indicate a ratio; in numerical ratios, use a colon; to show this relationship between two words, use an en dash.
Example
The teacher–student ratio was 1 : 52.

Do not use a colon

If the sentence is continuous without a colon.
Between a verb or preposition and its direct object.

SEMICOLON

Use a semicolon

To separate two or more complete thoughts (each thought can stand alone) that are not joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
Used in this way, a semicolon can be replaced by a full stop but provides a tool for the author to show that the complete thoughts are linked in content.
Example
I came; I saw; I conquered.
To separate a series of items that contain internal punctuation; a comma does not provide the reader with a clear enough distinction between the beginning and end of each item (see "Comma").
To separate bulleted items unless the items are full sentences, in which case they are separated by periods (see "Bulleted list" in Chapter 6).

EXCLAMATION MARK

The exclamation mark is rare in IDRC publications. Although the scientists and researchers may have exciting results, they seldom have occasion to exclaim about them! In more popular writing, however, the exclamation mark is more common.

QUESTION MARK

Use a question mark

After all questions, even if they are in declarative form.
Example
Would you please get the lead out in the production of a style manual?
After each indirect question in a series of indirect questions.
Example
The questions I needed answered were: Who would write the style manual? Who would edit it? Who would produce it? And who would use it?

Do not use a question mark

After a single indirect question.
Example
The question I needed answered was who would write the style manual.

QUOTATION MARKS

Quotation marks — both double and single — need less explanation about how to use them than about how to use other punctuation with them.

There are two accepted (but mutually exclusive) rules of thumb for the use of punctuation with quotations marks: Fowler's Modern English Usage refers to them as the logical and the conventional rules.

The two rules are equally correct, although people using the logical style tend to consider the conventional placement of punctuation to be incorrect.

"The logical punctuates according to sense" and puts punctuation outside the quotation marks except when they are actually part of the quote.

"The conventional prefers to put stops within ..., if it can be done without ambiguity, on the ground that this has a more pleasing appearance."

IDRC rule

IDRC uses the conventional style, with all punctuation marks except the semicolon and colon being included within the quotation marks.

Examples: The durian is "the king of fruits," but many people say one must develop a taste for it.; The durian is "the king of fruits"; many people have developed a taste for it.; The durian is "the king of fruits": its advocates in Southeast Asia number in the millions.

Double and single quotes

Use double quotation marks

To enclose quoted material that is not longer than four typed lines, about 40 words. For longer quotations, indent both margins enough to indicate clearly that the section of text differs from earlier and subsequent text and do not use quotation marks.
To enclose the title of an article, poem, or chapter of a book in the text (but do not do this in the reference list); also television shows and song titles are enclosed in quotation marks.
To set off a coined term, new technical word, or an old term used in an unusual context; also, for words or letters that would be ambiguous without quotation marks.
Example
Please place an "x" by the answer you believe is correct.
To set off quoted material within larger quotations that are set off by being set on a shorter line length.

Use single quotation marks

To enclose quoted material within larger quotations set off by double quotes.
To set off the names of plant cultivars. Note: cv. may also be used.

APOSTROPHE

The apostrophe shows

Possession (replacing the preposition "of" used with a noun or any word acting as a noun); and
Omission of letters in a word or phrase (for example, the contraction o'er).

Possessives

Use an apostrophe to indicate possession

Before adding an "s" to words that do not end in "s."
Examples
An entire year's work was wasted
His brother-in-law's exhibit was a success.
After the "s" in words that end in "s" when they are plural.
Example
The farmers' suspicion about the equipment disintegrated.
After the "s" to form singular possessives of words ending in "s" in the singular.
Example
Jones' cow

Do not use an apostrophe

Before adding an "s" to show the plurals of abbreviations, single letters, or a year.
Examples
IARCs (international agricultural research centres), 1980s

Omission of letters

In IDRC publications, contractions formed by omission of letters should be avoided. (This does not include abbreviations formed by the omission of letters.)

Example: Do not use o'er for over; but Dr is used for Doctor.

SOLIDUS

The solidus is also called slash, oblique, slant line, virgule, and stroke.

Use a solidus

To indicate the mathematical operation of division and, as an extension of this, as a substitute for the word per. (See also Chapter 3 on numbers.)
To replace the word per in expressions that incorporate a numeral.
Example
6 kg/cm²/ha
In expressions in which more than one solidus would be required, reword the text so that the correct mathematical representation is provided.
Example
"Annual yields of 14 t/ha" or "Yields of 14 t/ha per year" not "Yields of 14 t/ha/yr."
To indicate that one number is divided by another.
Example
176/14 is the same as 176 divided by 14.
To indicate a noncalendar year. An exception to this is the IDRC Annual Report where the style 1992–1993 is used to parallel the French style.
Example
Financial year 1984/85.

Do not use a solidus

To indicate a ratio; in numerical ratios, use a colon; to show this relationship between two words, use an en dash.
Example
The teacher–student ratio was 1 : 52.

PARENTHESES AND BRACKETS

Parentheses

A major problem with parentheses ("round brackets") is not so much how to use them but how to use punctuation with them.

Unless the information enclosed in parentheses is a complete sentence (with a capital first letter and a period before the closing parenthesis), there should never be a mark of punctuation before the opening parenthesis.

Whatever mark of punctuation is required by the text preceding the parenthetical expression is placed after the closing parenthesis.

Use parentheses

To enclose comments or explanations that are structurally independent of the sentence (parentheses show greater independence of the expression than is possible with commas or dashes).
To enclose the author and year of publication of references cited in the text.
Example
(Smith 1969; Croome et al. 1975; Drysdale and Kealey 1977).
To enclose labels for enumerations.
Example
If a person is caught bringing a durian into a hotel, the authorities take three steps: (1) fine the offender; (2) confiscate the fruit; and (3) sneak away to devour the flavourful, but offensive-smelling, item.
However, avoid this format if possible by using words — "... three steps: first, fine the offender; second; confiscate ..." — or creating a bulleted list.
To enclose identification or directions for the reader.
Example
The results (Table 2) clearly showed that the typical editor at IDRC in 1983 was female, under age 35, and short.
To group mathematical expressions.
Example
(a + b)(x² - y)

Do not use parentheses

Inside a parenthetical expression: use an em dash or square brackets.
Example
The jiko costs about 35 KES (100 Kenyan shillings [KES] = 9 Canadian dollars [CAD]).
In mathematics: use

Brackets

Brackets — [ ] — are used sparingly in IDRC publications.

Use brackets

To indicate parenthetical information within a parenthetical expression.
Example
During a prolonged visit to Australia, Glueck and an assistant (James Green, who was later to make his own study of a flightless bird [the kiwi] in New Zealand) spent ....
To indicate an editorial comment within a quotation.
To give the original language of a reference where the title has been translated in the bibliographic entry.
Example
Tiem, P.V. 1991. Ten years of price reforms 1981–91. Information Publishing House, Hanoi, Viet Nam. 32 pp. [In Vietnamese]
Note: No punctuation is used inside or outside the closing bracket.
To display the original publication date of a text citation and of its bibliographic entry of a republished work.
Example
Text: (More 1972 [1516])
List: More, T. 1972 [1516]. Utopia. Folio Society, London, UK. 280 pp.
To give the second-language version of a title in a reference list.
To number displayed equations.

Braces

Braces — — are used mainly in mathematics to show a third level of concentration after ( ) and [ ]. The cluster is always .

Example: /(3z - 2y)

HYPHENS, DASHES, AND MINUS SIGNS

Definitions

In publications, there are four lengths of dashes — the hyphen (-), the en dash (–), the em dash (—), and the minus sign (-) — each of which has a different function and a different length.

In any type face, an em dash is as long as the type is high — the width of the capital letter "M". An en dash is half the length of an em dash; the hyphen is smaller yet; and the minus sign is between the hyphen and the en dash.

Hyphen

Use a hyphen

To indicate a word break at the end of a line.
To indicate a word with an internal hyphen, such as decision-maker (use Webster's Dictionary to ensure that the hyphen is needed).
To separate the numerator from the denominator in fractions of numbers smaller than 10.
Examples
One-third, two-thirds, and three-quarters.
To indicate that two or more words (unless the first is an "-ly" form of an adverb) are being used as a single term to describe or modify another word, that is, in a compound adjective.
Examples
Developing-country scientists; 15-fathom grounds; less-marketable species; but closely spaced plants.

En dash

Use an en dash

To indicate a range.
Examples
10–20 kg, 1993–95
To indicate an equal relationship between two words.
Examples
Cost–benefit analysis; protein–calorie malnutrition; North–South dialogue; teacher–student ratio.

An en dash is always unspaced when it is shows a range or an equal relationship between two words (10–20 kg or teacher–student) even if one half of the expression consists of more than one word.

Do not use an en dash

To indicate a range if you use the words "from" or "between."
Examples
From 1969 to 1975; between 1969 and 1975; but during 1969–75.
Where a compound adjective is involved, avoid the use of a en dash for a range.
Example
10-mg to 20-mg doses or 10- to 20-mg doses; not 10–20-mg doses.

Em dash

Use an em dash

To indicate an abrupt change in thought.
Example
I want to go — you could come along — but I'm not sure when.
To indicate parenthetical information, as a substitute for parentheses.
Example
The minced white flesh is mixed with salt, starch, condiments, and spices — onion, ginger, garlic, nutmeg, allspice, curry powder, ....

IDRC style with em dash
IDRC style is to use a space before and after an em dash.

Minus sign

Although often typed in text as a hyphen, a true minus sign should be used.

A minus sign as a mathematical operation is spaced but is unspaced to indicate a negative value.

Examples: (x - y) but -6°C.

Document(s) 3 of 10

guest (Read)(Ottawa) Login